#malcolm lyons

One Thousand and One Nights is such a rich and layered inheritance — stories passed down from oral tradition to the written form, like so many folk and spiritual tales across cultures. But at the same time, their journey through translation tells us a lot about colonial mechanisms in literature.

I'm an Indian Muslim living in Europe, and like a lot of us, I grew up listening to versions of One Thousand and One Nights. My dad used to tell me bits and pieces in Urdu, sometimes mixed with other Indian folk tales or Sufi parables. These stories are part of a huge shared tradition — Arabic, Farsi, Urdu — and they’re still very much alive in South Asian and Middle Eastern imaginations.

But growing up in Belgium, whenever I tried to actually read the original text (in French at first, since that’s the language I was educated in) I kept running into Antoine Galland. And let me tell you: that man didn’t translate the Nights. He basically wrote fanfiction (and honestly, calling it that is disrespectful to fanfiction).

He added stuff that wasn’t there — Aladdin, Ali Baba, Sinbad? Not part of the original corpus. They were separate folktales that he included based on oral retellings. He also censored many parts, rewrote others, and modified everything to fit the European gaze. The result? A whitewashed, romanticized, orientalist version that Europe adored.

And because Galland was the first to translate the Nights into a European language, his version became the reference. Even the first major English translations were based on his retelling — not the Arabic manuscripts. And yeah, it bothers me. Because it shaped how “the West” sees this work — and by extension, how it sees us.

This isn’t just about a translation. It’s about power. About exoticisation. About how a literary tradition can be overwritten and distorted to serve a fantasy — a fantasy that flatters the colonial gaze. It’s a textbook case of what Edward Said called orientalism: taking a cultural object from the Muslim world and reframing it to match Western fantasies — of sensuality, decadence, cruelty, mystery. And because it was dressed up as "authentic," it shaped generations of readers and their perceptions of “the Orient.”

Fun fact: Galland’s version was so off that Persian and Arab scholars never even treated it as a real version of the Nights. Instead, it was translated back into Arabic and Persian in the 19th century — not to reclaim it, but because it had become such a globally recognized product in the West. These translations circulated as a separate corpus, often under titles like Alf Layla wa-Layla wa Qisas Ukhra (A Thousand and One Nights and Other Stories). So yes, the stories had to be "re-traditionalized" in their own languages — while keeping a clear boundary between Galland’s fictionalized version and the authentic canon.

Also, sidenote: Europeans have long called it The Arabian Nights, but its roots are actually Persian. The original title is Hezār Afsān (A Thousand Stories), and the earliest manuscripts were in Middle Persian, before Arabic versions became dominant. Calling it “Arabian” erases the Persian layers completely. It came to South Asia through Farsi language actually.

Thankfully, more recent translators have tried to go back to the source. In French, we have René Khawam, who worked from original Arabic and refused to sugarcoat or censor anything. In English, you can check out Malcolm C. Lyons (Penguin Classics) or Husain Haddawy, who translated from the Muhsin Mahdi critical edition — both of which offer a much more respectful take.

These days, I’ve been reading bits and pieces from Khawam’s version, and also children’s Urdu versions — just to reconnect with what it felt like when my dad used to tell them. I hope to one day read the full thing in Urdu. I also have Haddawy's version on my radar.

Anyway. It just makes me mad. The white gaze is everywhere, especially in literature. And the worst part is — most people have no idea.

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Further readings (for the nerds, like me) If you want to dig deeper into how One Thousand and One Nights got reshaped — and how much it influenced Orientalist stereotypes — here are some great starting points:

Robert Irwin, The Arabian Nights: A Companion — deep dive into different translations and their cultural impact.

Edward Said, Orientalism — not just about the Nights, but essential for understanding the “white gaze” in literature.

Marina Warner, Stranger Magic: Charmed States and the Arabian Nights — brilliant on how these tales enchanted and distorted the Western imagination.

Rana Kabbani, Imperial Fictions: Europe’s Myths of Orient — sharp critique of how Europe mythologized “the Orient,” including Galland’s role.

After my grandparents gifted me some beautiful editions of the old Richard Burton translations, I decided I had to reread the Tales of 1001 Nights, but do it right, all the way through. I did some research and decided the Malcolm C. Lyons translation, relatively new, was definitely the way to go.

Too few people realize that there is no "complete" or "original" version of 1001 Nights—these stories came from oral story-telling. Early manuscripts gathering tales under the classic framing story of Shahrazad existed before the 10th century but have been lost. Stories like 'Ali Baba' and 'Aladdin' are 'orphan tales,' not accounted for in the manuscripts we have, and instead added by a French author who wanted to add to his 1001 Nights version, and so got some more stories from a source in Syria. Anyone who has studied mythology or oral folklore is familiar with these kinds of twists and turns. A fairy tale professor of mine once said that trying to trace a folk tale is like tracking a mountain stream—you can follow it up to the "source," but the source disappears into a mountain, and you will never know where it actually begins.

This translation by Malcolm Lyons is in three beautiful paperbacks from Penguin Classics. It's the first complete translation of the Calcutta II / Macnaghten edition since Burton's. It avoids the Orientalist mess of former editions, as well as his strange elaborate language, and avoids either trying to moralize or clean up the tales, or try to hypersexualize them—both of which have been done before. It doesn't attempt to recreate rhyming, and tries to transliterate Arabic names as literally as possible. Malcolm's wife Ursula Lyons translated the "orphan tales" from French, and contributed to his efforts translating the stories.