#ls54

[WS100]

Gong's great grandson Weigong likewise could see from birth. People considered him to resemble his great grandfather Gong, and for that reason named him as Weigong. In Gaogouli they refer to resembling each other as “Wei”. Weigong likewise was brave and strong, and at ease with bow and horse. In the middle of Wei's Zhengshi [240 – 249], he entered to rob Anping in Liaoxi, and was routed by the Inspector of You province, Muqiu Jian.

His great-great-grandson was Yifuli. Li's son was Zhao. In the time of Emperor Lie [329 – 337], he and the Murong clan attacked and struck each other. 4th Year of Jianguo [341 AD], Murong Yuanzhen led the multitudes to invade them. He entered through the southern pass, fought at Mudi and greatly routed Zhao's army. He exploited the victory for a long advance, and thereupon entered Wandu. Zhao fled and ran away on a single horse. Yuanzhen dug up Zhao's father's tomb, and carried off his corpse, he also carried off his mother and wife, precious treasure, men and women, more than 50 000 people. He burnt his palace houses, destroyed Wandu City, and turned back. Afterwards, Zhao dispatched envoys to come to court. They were hindered and cut off by robbers and foes, and were unable to arrive from [him]. Zhao later was killed by Baiji [Baekje].

In the time of Shizu, Zhao's great-grandson Lian first dispatched an envoy to [the General who] Calms the East to offer a petition to tribute the things of the region, and also to request the state's taboo [characters]. Shizu was delighted with their earnest sincerity. He decreed to send down the imperial lineage's external names and taboos to their state. He dispatched the Outer Staff Cavalier Attendant Gentleman Li Ao to designate Lian Chief Controller of the Various Army Affairs of Liaohai, General who Conquers the East, Acting Central Gentleman Commander who Protects the Eastern Barbarians, State-Founding Duke of Liaodong commandery, and King of Gaogouli.

Ao arrived at his residence at Pingrang [i.e. Pyongyang] City, and inquired into their region's affairs. He stated: South-east of the Liao, more than a thousand li, east until Zha City, south until the Lesser Sea, north until old Fuyu. The population and households has tripled since the time of Former Wei. Their land is 2 000 li from east to west, and more than 1 000 li from north to south. The people have all sprung from the land. They go along with the mountains and valleys, and live there. Fore clothes they use cloth, silk and hides. The native farmland is meagre and poor. Their silk-work and farming are insufficient to provide for themselves, and for that reason their people are modest with food and drink. Their customs are joyful [?], they are fond of singing and dancing. At night, men and women crowd together for entertainment without ranking of the noble and the humble. However when cleaning and purifying they enjoy themselves. Their king is fond of arranging palace buildings. His named officials have the titles of Yeshe, Taishe, Great Brother, and Junior Brother. On their heads they wear twisted style, shaped like a conical cap, and on the sides they insert bird feathers, noble and humble each proportionally. If standing up, they turn back with folded hands. When they kneel to do obeisance, they trail one foot. They travel on foot like they are running. They always use the 10th Month to worship Heaven, and within the state there is a great assembly. At their public gatherings, their clothes and dress area always brocaded and embroidered, with gold and silver as decorations. They are fond of squatting and crouching. When eating they use trays and low tables. They produce a three foot [tall] horse, they state it was originally ridden by Zhumeng, and the horse breed as a result has come down [from it?]. After, tribute was sent soon after each other, annually they delivered 200 jin yellow gold and 400 jin white silver.

At the time Feng Wentong [the final ruler of Northern Yan] led the multitudes to run to them [in 436 AD], Shizu dispatched the Cavalier in Regular Attendance Feng Bo with a decree to Lian ordering him to send off Wentong. Lian sent up a letter claiming he undertook to serve the royal reforms together with Wentong, and in the end did not sent him off. Shizu was furious, and wished to go and chastise him. Hte King of Leping, Pi, and others debated waiting and launch it later. Shizu therefore desisted, and Wentong also soon after was killed by Lian.

Later Empress Dowager Wenming, as Xianzu's Six Palces were not yet made ready, counselled Lian to make him recommend his daughter. Lian offered a petition, stating his daughter was already married, and beseech to use his younger brother's daughter in response to the directive. The imperial court allowed it, and therefore dispatched the King of Anle, Zhen, the Master of Writing, Li Fu, and others to reach the border and send off the gifts.

Lian was tricked by the advise of his left and right, stating that the imperial court formerly had intermarried with the Feng clan, but then not much later wiped out their state. The lessons of Yin were not remote, they ought to just then conveniently decline it. Lian thereupon sent up a letter falsely claiming the girl had died. The imperial court suspected him of concealing trickery, and again dispatched the Provisional Cavalier in Regular Attendance Cheng Jun to sternly call him to account, and if the girl really was dead, attend to select in replacement [someone] gentle of his lineage. Lian stated that if the Son of Heaven forgave his previous errors, he would respectfully undertake to serve the decree. It happened that Xianzu collapsed, and he therefore desisted.

[LS54]

Yiyimo died, his son Weigong was installed. Weigong was brave and strong, at ease with saddles and horses, and good at shooting and hunting. Wei's 2nd Year of Jingchu [238 AD], they dispatched the Grand Tutor, Sima King Xuan [i.e. Sima Yi], to lead the multitudes and chastise Gongsun Yuan. Weigong dispatched the Master of Account and Great Assigner in command of a thousand troops to help the army. 3rd Year of Zhengshi [242 AD], Weigong robbed Xi'an and Jiaping. 5th Year [244 AD], the Insepctor of You province, Muqiu Jian, in command of ten thousand people, set out from Xuantu to chastise Weigong. Weigong in command of 20 000 foot and horse confronted the army, and there was a great battle at Feiliu. Weigong fled in defeat. Jian's army pursued until Xian. They hung up their chariots, bound their horses, and climbed Wandu Mountain. They slaughtered those that were in the capital, the cut off heads and captives numbered more than ten thousand. Weigong only brought along his wife and children to run far away. 6th Year [245 AD], Jian again chastised him. Weigong lightly brought along the various Assigners to run to Woju. Jian sent General Wang Qi to pursue him. He cut across Woju for more than a thousand li, arrived in the southern regions of Sushen, and carved a rock to record his merits. He again reached Wandu Mountain, inscribed the walls of Bunai, and then turned back. After that, they again communicated with the Central Xia.

In the chaos of Jin's Yongjia era [307 – 313], the Xianbei Murong Hui occupied Daji City in Changli, Emperor Yuan conferred on him Inspector of Ping province. The King of Gouli, Yifuli, frequently robbed Liaodong, and Hui was not able to put it in order.

Fuli died, his son Liu was installed in replacement. Emperor Kang's 1st Year of Jianyuan [343 AD], Murong Hui's son Huang led troops to invade him. Liu fought with him, was greatly defeated, and ran and fled on a single horse. Huang exploited the victory to pursue until Wandu, burnt his palace houses, and seized more than 50 000 boys to return home.

Xiaowu's 10th Year of Taiyuan [385 AD], Gouli attacked Liaodong and Xuantu commanderies. Murong Chui of Later Yan dispatched his younger brother Nong to invade Gouli, he restored the two commanderies. Chui died, his son Bao was installed. He used the King of Gouli, An, as Shepherd of Ping province, and ennobled him King of the two states of Liaodong and Daifang. An started to set up the offices of Senior Clerk, Marshal, and Army Advisor, and afterwards roughly had Liaodong commandery.

Arriving at his grandson, Gaolian, he in the middle of Emperor An of Jin's Yixi era [405 – 418], first offered a petition to exchange tribute and duties.

[SuiS081]

Gaoli's ancestor sprung from Fuyu. The King of Fuyu once obtained the daughter of Hebo, and following that had her shut up inside a room. She was followed by the sun's light, which shone on her. She felt it and consequently became pregnant. She gave birth to a large, and there was a boy who broke the shell and came out. His name was Zhumeng. Fuyu's ministers, since Zhumeng had not been born by a person, all requested to kill him. The king did not heed them. Growing up, because he accompanied on hunts, he caught normally a large amount, and they again requested to kill him. His mother reported it to Zhumeng, and Zhumeng abandoned Fuyu and fled south-east. He came to one great river, deep and impossible to cross. Zhumong said:

I am truly the maternal grandson of Hebo, and the son of the son. Now there are difficulties, and pursuing troops are about to catch up. How about getting to cross?

And so fish and turtles piled up and completed a bridge, and Zhumong thereupon crossed. The pursuing riders did not mange to ferry over, and turned back.

The various Rong of the North-west, during the Han period, Zhang Qian first went out on the tracks of the Western Region, Gan Ying then approached the Western Sea. Sometimes they dispatched attendant sons, sometimes they offered displays of tribute. At that time, though they were destitute in troops, they were extremely martial, and they were only just overcome and vanquished. Compared to previous eras, their plundering was far reaching. In the time of Wei, three regions were [like] legs of a tripod, with daily matters of opposing halberds, When the Jin clan pacified Wu and afterwards, and they for a little while obtained a little tranquillity and rest, they merely set up the office of Wuji. The various states likewise were not yet retainers and followers. Continuing on with the Central States' destruction and disorder, Hu people rose up one after the other. The Western Region was separated and blocked from Jiangdong and difficult translations were not exchanged. Lü Guang's expedition to Quici was more like barbarians invading barbarians, and no idea of the Central States. Since that point, the various states have divided and united, been victorious or defeated, strong or weak, and it is difficult to obtain a thorough record. Bright gems and blue feathers were only familiar in the rear palaces, Pushao and Longwen [horses] rarely entered the outer offices. At Liang accepting the mandate, they who served the correct calendar and were in the court's palaces and courtyard, were the states of Chouchi, Dangchang, Gaochang, Dengzhi, Henan, Quici, Yutian and Hua. Now [I] patch together their manners and customs, and as an Account of the North-western Rong as follows:

…

The state of Hua is a branch of Jushi. Han's 1st Year of Yongjian [126 AD], Bahua accompanied Ban Yong to strike the northern villains and had merit. Yong elevated Bahua to Marquis Friendly to Han of the Rear Section. From Wei, Jin, and onwards, they did not communicate with the Central States.

…

The state of Baiti, the King's family name is Zhi and his personal name Shijiyi. His ancestors perhaps were Hu from a branch of the Xiongnu. When Han's Guan Ying fought with Xiongnu, he beheaded one Baiti cavalryman. Now it is east of the state of Hua. The distance to Hua is six day's travel, furthest west is Persia [Bosi波斯]. The land produces millet, wheat, and melons. The food is roughly similar to Hua.

…

Qiuci is an old state of the Western Regions. In the time of Guangwu of Later Han [r- 25 – 57 AD], their King was named Hong. He was killed by the King of Shache, Xian, who wiped out his family. Xian sent his son Zeluo to be King of Qiuci. The people of the state also killed Zeluo. The Xiongnu installed a notable man from Quici, Shendu, as King, and because of this they belonged to the Xiongnu. However Qiuci in the Han period was regularly a great state, the capital was called Yan City.

When Emperor Wen of Wei begun his reign [r. 220 - 226], they dispatched envoys with tribute to present. Middle of Jin's Taikang era [280 -289], they dispatched sons to enter [court] in attendance.

7th Year of Taiyuan [382 AD], the ruler of Qin, Fu Jian, dispatched general Lü Guang to invade the Western Region. He arrived at Qiuci. The King of Qiuci, Bochun, loaded up the treasure, set out and ran. Guang entered his city. The city has three layers. The outer walls are comparable to the walls of Chang'an. The rooms and buildings are huge and magnificent. For decoration they use gemstones, gold, and jade. Guang installed Bochun's younger brother Zhen as King, and then returned home. Since then they have been cut off from the Central States and not communicated.

…

The state of Yutian belongs to the Western Regions. At the end of Later Han's Jianwu era Jianwu [25 – 56 AD], King Yu was routed by the King of Shache, Xian. He moved him to be King of Ligui, and used his younger brother Junde as King of Yutian. He was violent and cruel, and the hundred families were troubled by him. Middle of Yongping [58 – 75 AD], a man of their kind, Dumo, killed Junde. A nobleman, Xiumoba also killed Dumo, and installed himself as King. Ba died, and his older brother's son Guangde was installed. He afterwards struck and captured the King of Shache, Xian, to return home, and killed him, and thereupon he made a strong state. The various small states of the north-west all yield and follow.

In their land there are many rivers and rainstorms, sand and rock. The air is warm and suitable for rice, wheat, and rose apple [putao 蒲桃]. There is a river which produces jade, it is called the Yu He [“Jade river”, 玉河]. People of the state are good at casting copper vessels. Their government seat is called Xishan City, it has roofed houses, markets, and wells. The fruit and vegetables are comparable to the Central States. They are particularly reverent of Buddhism. The building where the King dwells has cinnabar drawings applied to it. The King's headgear is a golden head-wrap, similar to the present Hu-style hat. He sits side by side with his wife when welcoming guests. Within their state, the married women all braid their hair and wear fur trousers. Their people are respectful. When they see each other, they kneel, and when they kneel, one knee touches the ground. For writing they use wood for brush and slips, and jade for stamps. When the people of the state obtain a letter, they wear it on their head, and then afterwards open up the slips. In the time of Emperor Wen of Wei, King Shanxi presented famous horses.

King Ashoka [ayu wang阿育王] is precisely the Iron Wheel King. He was king over Jambudvipa [the Indian subcontinent, Yanfuti閻浮提] and united Under Heaven. After the Buddha's nirvana, in one day and one night, he conscripted ghosts and spirits to construct 84 000 stupas, this was precisely one of them. In the time of Wu, there was Buddhist nun who lived on that land, she made a small monastery. Sun Chen soon after demolished and removed it. The stupa was also destroyed with it. After Wu was pacified, various people of the Way again erected it at its old place.

When Zhongzong of Jin [i.e. Emperor Yuan] began to cross the Jiang, he immediately adorned and decorated it. Arriving at Jianwen's Xian'an era [371 – 372], he sent the sramana Teacher An to go there and construct a small stupa. It was not yet complete when he perished. His disciple Monk Xian carried on, and adorned the construction. Arriving at Xiaowu's 9th Year of Taiyuan [384 AD], they put up gold on the wheels and the parasols.

After that, in Lishi county in Xihe there was a Hu person called Liu Sahe who became ill and suddenly perished, but below the heart he was still warm. His family had not yet dared to bury him right away when after ten days, he revived again. He told them:

There were two functionaries making recordings. [I] travelled toward the north-west, but did not measure if it was far or near, until [I] arrived in the Eighteen Hells. Subsequently there was retribution, heavy or light, and [we] received various painful abuses. [I] saw the Guanshiyin [Bodhisattva] who spoke: “Your destiny is not yet ended. If [you] manage to live, [you] can become a sramana. Below Luo, inQicheng, Danyang, and Kuaiji all have King Ashoka's stupas, you can go there and worship. If [your] natural lifespan ends, [you] will not fall into hell. Her speech finished, it was like [I]fell from a tall cliff, and suddenly [I] woke up from sleep.

Following that, he set out from his family, and took the name Huida. He roamed and travelled to pay respect at the stupas and in turn arrived in Danyang, but he did not know where the stupa was located. He therefore climbed the walls of Yue [?] and looked around. He saw a strange coloured aura a thousand li long. Following that, he went there to worship, and it really was where King Ashoka, which frequently let out a glowing light. With that, he certainly knew there was sure to be sarira [Buddhist relics], and therefore assembled a multitude to go there and dig for them. When they had gotten a zhang in, they obtained three stone steles, each six chi long. On the middle stele there was and iron box, inside the box there was a silver box, and inside that box there was a gold box. It was filled with three sarira and a nail and a hair, one of each. The hair was several chi long. They immediately moved the sarira closer north, to stand opposite west of the stupa Jianwen had built, and built single storey stupa. 16th Year [f Taiyuan?, 391 AD], they also sent the sramana Monk Shangqie to make it three storeys, which was precisely the one opened by Gaozu [of Liang].

…

Middle of Jin's Xianhe era [326 – 334], the Governor of Danyang, Gao Kui, travelled the to the Zhanghou Bridge, and saw on the bank a five coloured glove, several chi long. He did not know why, and therefore ordered people to the location of the glow to dig in the ground and look at it. He They obtained a golden statue, but it had not yet a glowing base. Kui therefore sent down a chariot, to transport the statue back. When they arrived at the head of the Changgan Lane, the ox was not willing to advance. Kui therefore ordered the driver to trust in what the ox was doing. The ox straight away pulled the chariot to a temple, and Kui following that kept the statue in the care of the temple monks. Always at midnight, it would constantly let out a glowing light, and also they heard within the hollow the sound of metal and stone.

One year had passed, when a fisherman, Zhang Xishi, at the mouth of the sea suddenly saw a copper flower base floating on the water. Xishi took it and sent it to the county, and the county sent it to the palace. They set it up as the foot of the statue, and it was as if they were joined together.

It happened that in Jianwen's 1st Year of Xian'an [371 AD], a native of Hepu in Jiao province, Dong Zongzhi, was collecting pearls submerged in water, and at the bottom obtained a Buddha bright and beautiful. Jiao province compelled him to send it to the palace. They set it up with the state and it also joined with it. From the middle of Xianhe until the beginning of Xian'an, more than thirty years had passed when the glowing base was first arranged.

Earlier, after Gao Kui had obtained the statue, a five Hu monks from the Western Regions came to Kui, and said:

Formerly [we] obtained in Tianzhu a statue made by King Ashoka. [When we] came down to Ye, [we] encountered the chaos of the Hu and buried the statue on the edge of the Yellow River. Now [we are] seeking and searching for what I have lost.

The five people once in a single night all dreamt that they saw the statue, which said:

[I] have already set out for Jiangdong, and been obtained by Gao Kui.

Kui therefore sent these five monks to the temple. When they saw the statue, they sighed, sobbed, and wept tearfully. The statue right then began to glow, the shine lit up the roof of the hall.

There also was Huisui of Waguan Temple who wished to make a copy shaped like the statue. The temple master Monk Shang worried it would damage or diminish the golden statue, and he spoke to Sui, saying:

If [you] are able to make the statue begin to glow, and turn its body westward, then [you] can have permission.

The state of Funan is located within the great bay west of the sea south of Rinan commandery. The distance to Rinan could be 7 000 li, it is located more than 3 000 li south-west of Linyi. The distance from the city to the sea is 500 li. They have a great river ten li broad which flows from the north-west and to the east enters the sea. Their state's length and breath is more than 3 000 li. The land is stagnant and lowly and yet level and broad. The air and climate, manners and customs, are in a general comparison similar to Linyi. They produce gold, silver, copper, tin, agarwood, ivory, peacock and kingfisher [feathers], and parrots of five colours.

More than 3 000 li from their southern area is the state of Dunxun. It is located at a bend of the sea. The land is a thousand li square and the distance from city to the sea is ten li. They have five kings, all are controlled by and belong to Funan. Dunxun's eastern border communicates with Jiao province. Their western area borders the various states outside the frontiers of Tianzhu and Anxi, they come and go to exchange on the market. It is so since Dunxun turns around the centre of the sea for more than a thousand li, the Swelling Sea has no cliffs and banks, and boats and ships never manage to pass straight pass. At their market east and west exchange and gather, and daily there are more than ten thousand people. Of precious things and, treasured goods, there are none which they do not have. Also they have a wine tree which resembles pomegranate. They collect their flowers [and?] sap, and halt [?] them within earthen jars, after several it becomes wine.

Outside Dunxun on an island in the great sea, there also is the state of Piqian, the distance to Funan is 8 000 li. It is told that their king's body is two zhang long, and his head is three chi long. Since ancient times he has not died, and it is unknown what is his age. The king is divine and sagely. People within the state good or bad who are about to come to serve, the king always knows about them. As such, there are none who dare to deceive. In the southern regions, he is titled the Long Neck King. In the state's customs, they have houses and clothes, and they eat rice. The people's language is a little different from Funan. There are mountains which produces gold, gold dew form on rocks without limit. The state's law when they punish a criminal, they also eat his flesh in front of the king. Within the state, they do not accept traders as guest. If someone goes there, they also kill and eat him Thus merchants and travellers do not dare to arrive. The king has a regular lofty residence, he is not a blood eater and does not serve ghosts or gods. His sons and grandsons are born and die like regular people, only the king does not die.

The King of Funan several times dispatched envoys with letters to reply and answer each other. He often conveys to the King of Funan entirely golden eating utensils for fifty people, shaped like round trays, and also like earthen ou塸 [?], named as duoluo, accommodating five sheng, also those like bowls, accommodating one sheng. The king is likewise able to write Tianzhu [i.e. Indian] books. The book is possibly three thousand words, and explains the causes for his predetermined fate. It and the Buddhist classics resemble each other, both discuss good affairs.

It is also told that the area east of Funan is precisely the Great Swelling Sea. Within the sea there is a great island, on the island is the state of Zhubo. East of the state are the Five Islands of Horse. Then travelling east on the Swelling Sea for more than 1 000 li, [you] arrive at the Great Island of What Is As It Is. On it are trees growing with fires within them. People from nearby islands peel off and take their bark, spin threads to make cloth, at most they obtain several chi which they use for handkerchiefs. It has no differences from abaca, but the colour is a faint blue-green or black. If it is a little filthy, they throw it in the fire, and then it is once more pure and clean. Sometimes they make lamp wicks, when using them they are not, presumably, consumed.

In the state of Funan the custom was originally for naked bodies. They patterned their bodies and cloaked their hair, and had no system for upper and lower garments. They used a woman as king, titling her Liuye [lit. “Willow Leaf”]. She was young in years, big and strong, and resembled a man. South of them was a peripheral state where there was someone who served the ghosts and gods called Huntian. He dreamt the gods bestowed on him a bow, and that he steered a traders' ship into the sea. Liuye's people and multitudes saw the ship arriving, and wanted to take it. Huntian promptly drew the bow and shot the ship. It pierced through one side, and the arrow reached an attendant. Liuye was greatly afraid, and lifted up the multitudes to surrender to Huntian. Huntian then taught Liuye to make a hole in the cloth to pass through the head, and her shape was not then exposed. Thereupon he governed their state, accepted Liuye as wife, and bore sons that separately were kings in seven towns.

After that, King Hunpankuang used tricks and force to set apart the various towns, causing them to suspect and hinder each other. Following that, he raised troops, attacked, and annexed them. Then he selected among the sons and grandsons to separately reside in the various towns, titling them lesser kings.

Pankuang was aged more than ninety when he died, and they installed his middle son Panpan, with the affairs of the state entrusted to their great general Fan Man. Panpan had been installed for three years when he died, and the people of the state together raised up Man to be King. Man was fierce and strong, and had plans for dominance. He then used troops to overawe, assail and attack nearby states. Everyone submitted and belonged to him, and he titled himself Great King of Funan. Then he arranged to construct great ships to go to the ends of the Swelling Sea. They attacked Qudukun, Jiuzhi, Diansun, etc. more than ten states, and opened up a territory of five or six thousand li.

Next they were to attack the state of Jinlin, but Man became ill. He dispatched his Heir, Jinsheng, to act as his replacement. Man's nephew Zhan at the time was commander of two thousand people. Because of that, he usurp Man to install himself, and dispatched people to trick Jinsheng and then kill him. At the time Man died, he had a newborn son named Chang. He lived among the people, and when he reached twenty years of age, he then joined together strong soldiers within the state to assault and kill Zhan. Zhan's great general Fan Xun again killed Chang and installed himself. He once more repaired and put into order within the state, erected lookout towers and passageways to roam and make entertainment at them, and from dawn to the middle afternoon three or four times held audiences with guests.

The people use burning sugar can, tortoise, and birds as rituals. In the state's laws there are no pens or prisons. If there is a criminal, they first purifies themselves for three days. Then they heat an axe extremely red, and make the accused [?] hold it and walk for seven steps. They also take gold rings and chicken eggs, and throw them in boiling water, and make him find and take them. If he is not truthful, his hand will immediately burn up, if he has reasons, it will not.

Also in they city moat they rear crocodiles, and outside the gates they have enclosures with violent beasts. If there is a criminal, they immediately use famished violent beasts and crocodiles. If the beasts or crocodiles do not eat, he did no crime, and after three days they release him. Of the crocodiles, the large ones are two zhang long. They are shaped like alligators and have four feet. Their snouts are six or seven chi long with teeth on both edges, sharp like swords. They usually eat fish, when they happen to get water-deer or people they also devour them. Southward from Cangwu and foreign states all have them.

In the time of Wu, [Wu] dispatched the Central Gentleman Kang Tai and the Attendant for Promulgating Reforms Zhu Ying as envoys to explore states. The people of the state were still nude, only the wives wore [cloth] with holes for the head. Tai and Ying spoke to them, saying:

Inside the state is genuinely pleasing, it is just that people are indecent and naked which can be surprising, and that is all.

Soon after, they first made the men within the state wear crosswise bands. Crosswise bands are the current ganman [i.e. the sarong]. The great families then cut brocade to make it, the poor ones make use of cloth.

Middle of Emperor Wu of Jin's Taikang era [280 -289], they soon after first dispatched envoys to court with tribute to present. Emperor Mu's 1st Year of Shengping [357 AD], King Zhuzhantan offered a petition to present a tame elephant. The decree said:

The labour and expenses with this creature are not small, halt the order and do not send it off.

After that was King Jiaochenru, originally a brahmana from Tianzhu. There was a god which said “should be king [in] Funan”. Jiaochenru was pleased in his heart, and went south to Panpan. The people of Funan heard about it. They raised up the state's exuberant endorsement, welcomed and installed him. Then he changed the rules and measures, and employed Tianzhu law.

Among the states of the Eastern Yi, Chaoxian is the larger part. They obtained Jizi's conversions, and their receptacles and things still have rites and music. In the time of Wei, that of Chaoxian which belonged to the Dongma Han and the Chen Han for generations communicated with the Central States. Since Jin went beyond the Jiang, there floated envoys from east of the sea, and there was Gaogouli and Baiji, and in the timespan of Song and Qi they regularly exchanged appointments and tribute. When Liang flourished, they also made additions to them. The state of Fusang was in the past unknown. Middle of Putong [520 – 527], there was person of the Way that claimed he ad arrived from there. His words on the primary origins were particularly thorough, and for that reason [I] have also copied them.

…

Baiji, their ancestors among the Eastern Yi were the states of the Three Han. The first was called Mahan, the second Chenhan, and the third Bianhan. The Bianhan and Chenhan each had twelve states, Mahan had 54 states. The great states had more than ten thousand families, the small states had several thousand families, altogether there were more than a hundred thousand households. Baiji was precisely one of them. Later they gradually become strong and large, and combined the various small states. Their state was originally together with Gouli located east of Liaodong. During the Jin period when Gouli was roughly possessing Liaodong, Baiji likewise occupied land of Liaoxi and Jinping commandeiers, and from them set up Baiji commandery.

Middle of Jin's Taiyuan [376 – 396] there was King Xu, middle of Yixi [405 – 418] King Yuying, middle of Song's Yuanjia [424 – 453], King Yupi. All of them dispatched to present living mouths. Yupi died, they installed his son Qing. Qing died, his son Moudu was installed. Du died, they installed his son Moutai. Middle of Qi's Yongming [483 – 493], he was appointed Great Chief Controller for the Various Army Affairs of Baiji, Great General who Quells the East, and King of Baiji.

…

Xinluo, their ancestors were originally of the Chenhan kind. The Chenhan were also called the Qin Han, the distance between them was ten ten thousand li. Tradition say that in the age of Qin, fugitives fled conscription and came consequently to the Mahan. The Mahan likewise cut off their eastern area to settle them. Since they were people of Qin, they for that reason were called Qin Han. How they call things in their language resembles people from the Central States. They call a state a country, a bow an arc, a thief a bandit, and drinking wine as drinking toasts. They all call each other convicts, which is not the same as the Mahan. Also for the kings of the Chenhan they regularly employed people of the Mahan to make them. For generations they were bound together, the Chenhan did not mange to install themselves as kings, and they made clear them being drifting and shifting people was the reason.

The Chenhan at first had six states, little by little they divided to become twelve, Xinluo is precisely one of them. Their state is located more than 5 000 li south-east of Baiji. East of their land they adjoin the great sea, and north and south they have borders with Gouli and Baiji. In the time of Wei they were called Xinlu, in the time of Song Xinluo and sometimes Siluo. Their state was small and they were unable to communicate through envoys and missions.

…

The Wo refer to themselves as descendants of Taibo, by custom they all decorate their bodies. The distance from Daifang is more than 12 000 li. For the most part they are located east of Kuaiji, the distance between them is exceedingly long. From Daifang to Wo, [you] follow the sea and travelling by water, go past the Han states, east then south, and after more than 7 000 li, first cross one sea. The sea is more than 1 000 li broad and is named the Han Sea. [You] arrive at the state of Yizhi. Again cross one sea for more than 1000 li, named the state of Weilu. Again travel south-east by land 500 li to arrive at the state of Yidu. Again travel south-east 100 li to arrive at the state of Nu. Again travel east 100 li to arrive at the state of Bumi. Again travel south 20 days by water to arrive at the state of Touma. Again travel 10 days south by water, and travel by land a month and a day to arrive at the state of Qimatai, which is precisely where the King of Wo resides.

Their officials are the Yizhima, next the Mimahuozhi, next the Nuwangdi. The people grow millet, rice, ramie, and hemp, silkworms and mulberry, they weave and spin. They have ginger, cinnamon, tangerine, (fagara) pepper and perilla. They produce black pheasant, true pearls, and blue-green jade. There is an animal which is like an ox, named the shanshu [lit. “mountain mouse]. There is also a great snake that swallows this animal. The snake's skin is hard and not possible to cut, On it there is a hole which opens and closes, sometimes it is glowing. Shoot and hit it, and the snake then dies.

The things and products are roughly similar to Dan'er and Zhuya. The land is warm and temperal, the manners and customs are not licentious. Men and women all expose their hair-knots [?]. The rich and noble use brocade embroidered with a mix of colours for their headgear, resembling the Central States' Hu-style wear. For food and drink they use bamboo bowls and platters. When they die, they have an inner-coffin but no outer-coffin, they raise a mound to make a tomb. The people all by nature have a thirst for alcohol. In their customs they do not know the correct year, but many live to old age. Many become eighty or ninety, some become a hundred years old. In their customs, women are many and men are few. The noble have four or five wives, the humble still have two or three wives. A wife is not licentious or jealous. They have no banditry or theft and few arguments and disputes. If [someone] transgress the law, if it is light they take his wife and children. If serious, they wipe out his clan.

Middle of Emperor Ling of Han's Guanghe era [178 – 184], the state of Wo was in chaos. They attacked and invaded each other over successive years, and then installed a woman, Beimihu as King [Middle Chinese: Pjie-mjie-xu]. Mihu had no husband and held close the Way of ghosts. She was able to deceive the multitudes, and for that reason the people of the state installed her. She had a younger brother who aided her in governing the sate. After becoming king, few saw her. She used a thousand servant girls to attend herself, and only made a single man set out and enter to pass on her teachings and orders. The location of her palace houses, regularly had troops and defending guards. Reaching Wei's 3rd Year of Jingchu [239 AD], after Gongsun Yuan was executed, Beimihu first dispatched envoys to court with tribute. Wei used her as King Friendly to Wei, making use of golden seal and purple ribbon.

Middle of Zhengshi [240 – 249], Beimihu died, and they once more installed a man as King. Within the state [people] did not submit, and once more executed and killed each other. Then they installed a clanswoman of Beimihu, Taiyu, as King. After her they then installed a man as King. All accepted the Central States' feudal titles and instructions. In the time of Emperor An of Jin [r. 396 – 419], there was King Zan of Wo. Zan died, they installed his younger brother Mi. Mi died, they installed his son Ji. Ji died, they installed his son Xing. Xing died, they installed his younger brother Wu. Middle of Qi's Jianyuan [479 – 482], they appointed Wu Holding the Tally, Controlling the Various Army Affairs of the Six States of Wo, Xinluo, Renna, Qieluo, Qinhan, and Muhan, and Great General who Quells the East.

…

South of them is the state of Zhuru [lit. “Midgets”], where people are three or four chi tall. Again south are the states of Heichi [“Black Teeth”] and Luo [“Nude”], the distance from Wo is more than 4 000 li, travel by boat is perhaps a year before arriving. Again south-west for more 10 000 li are the sea people. Their bodies are black and their eyeballs are white, they are nude and repulsive. Their flesh is delicious and travellers sometimes shoot and eat them.

The state of Wenshen [“Patterned Bodies”] is more than 7 000 li north-east of the state of Wo. People's limbs have patterns like animals, and on their heads are three patterns. Those whose patterns are straight are noble, those whose patterns are thin are humble. Their native custom is to be happy and pleased. Things are plentiful but worthless. Travelling guests do not offer provisions. They have roofs and eaves but no walled cities. The place where their king resides is decorated with gold, silver, and precious and magnificent [things]. They surround their houses with a moat, 1 zhang wide, and fill it with mercury. Rain then flows on top of the mercury. At the market they use precious treasure. Those who commit a light crime they whip and cane. Those who commit a capital crime, they set up a violent animal to eat them. If it is unjust, the violent animal will turn away and not eat them. If they pass through the night, they will pardon them.

…

The state of Panpan, during Emperor Wen of Song's Yuanjia era [424 – 453] and Xiaowu's Xiaojian [454 – 456] and Daming [457 – 464] eras dispatched envoys with tribute to present.

…

The state of Gantuoli is located on an island in the Southern Sea. Their customs are roughly similar to Linyi and Funan. They produce ban班 cloth, jibei [tree cotton], and betel nut. The betel nuts are especially excellent, the pinnacle among the various states. During Xiaowu of Song's reign [454 – 464 AD], King Shipoluo Ranfuliantuo dispatched Senior Clerk Zhuliutuo to present gold, silver, and precious vessels.

…

The state of Central Tianzhu is located several thousand li south-east of Greater Yuezhi. The land is 30 000 li square. It is also named Yuandu. In the Han period Zhang Qian was sent to Daxia where he saw Qiong bamboo canes and Shu cloth. People of the state said they bought it in Yuandu. Yuandu is precisely Tianzhu. Probably the transmitted transcription of the sound and character are not similar, they really are the same. In the times of Han, they were controlled by and belonged to Yuezhi. Their customs and native characteristics are similar to the Yuezhi, but they are low-lying and humid, and feverishly hot. The people are weak and fearful in battle, and are weaker than the Yuezhi. The state is near a great river named Xintao which springs forth from Kulun and divided to become five rivers. Collectively they are called the Geng River [I.e. the Ganges]. Its water is sweet and pleasing. In it is true salt, coloured exactly white like water essence.

Native customs produce rhinoceros, elephant, marten, gerbil, hawksbill turtle, “fire blend” [huoqi火齊], gold, silver, iron, gold threads woven into complete gold felt, finely rubbed white folded [fabric?], excellent furs, and wool rugs. “Fire blend” is shaped like mica and is coloured like purple gold. It has a glowing sparkle. If divided up, it is thin like cicada wings. If piled up, it is like the layers of gauze or crepe. To their west they exchange and trade with Daqin and Anxi within the seas. There is much of Daqin's precious things – coral, amber, golden blue-green gems, pearls, gemstone-jade, tumeric, and storax. Storax is made by combining various fragrant saps and boiling them, it is not naturally from a single thing. It is also said that the people of Daqin gather storax, first press it for the sap to use as a fragrant ointment, and then sell its dregs to merchants from various states. Thus when it in turns come to the Central States, it is not very fragrant. Tumeric is only produced in the state of Jibin. The flowers are coloured exactly white and are delicate. It and those lotus flowers that are enclosed in the lotus leaves resemble each other. The people of the state first take it and send it up to the Buddhist temples, and for a number of days the fragrance wither, and then they clear away and remove it. Merchants seek out hirelings from within the temples, and so move it to sell to other states.

Emperor Huan of Han's 9th Year of Yanxi [166 AD], the King of Daqin, Antun, dispatched envoys to come and present from outside the frontiers of Rinan, during the Han period it was the only communication with them. The people of that state travel as merchants, from time to time arriving in Funan, Rinan, and Jiaozhi. Among the people from the various states on their southern frontiers there are few that have reached Daqin.

Sun Quan's 5th Year of Huanwu [226 AD], there was a merchant from Daqin, Ziqinlun, who came to Jiaozhi. The Grand Warden of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao sent him off to Quan. Quan asked about the region's native songs and customs. Lun provided detailed answers to the matters. At the time Zhuge Ke chastised Danyang, and captured short people from Yi and She [counties]. Lun saw them and said:

In Daqin [we] rarely see this [kind of] people.

Quan had men and women, ten each, and the selected envoy Liu Xian of Kuaiji sent off with Lun. Xian suffered a mishap on the road, and Lun then went straight back to his home state.

In the time of Emperor He of Han [r. 88 – 105 AD], Tianzhu several times dispatched envoys with tribute to present. Later the Western Region turned to rebellion and consequently they were cut off. Arriving at Emperor Huan's 2nd Year [159 AD] and 4th Year of Yanxi [161 AD], they frequently came from outside the frontiers of Rinan to present.

In the Wei and Jin periods, they were cut off and did not again communicate. However in the time of Wu, the King of Funan, Fan Zhan, dispatched a relative, Suwu, as envoy to their state. From Funan he issued forth from the mouth of the Juli, circled around a great bay in the sea, and straight north-west entered successive bays bordering several states. It could have been more than a year when he arrived at the mouth the Tianzhu river. He travelled against the water for 7 000 li and then arrived there. The King of Tianzhu was startled and said:

At the sea coast furthest away they still have this person.

He promptly shouted out orders to observe and take a look inside the state, and carried on selecting Chen and Song, two persons, with four Yuezhi horses as repayment to Zhan, and dispatched them to go back with Wu and others. After a total of four years exactly they arrived. At that time Wu dispatched Central Gentleman Kang Tai as envoy to Funan. When he saw Chen, Song, and others, he comprehensively asked about Tianzhu's native customs, as follows:

The Way of the Buddha is what fosters the state. The people are sincere and varied, and the land is fertile and well-watered. Their king is titled Maolun. The capital is a walled city. Water springs forth in a split flow, entwines it in a knot of channels [?], and flows down into the great river. Their palace halls all are engraved and patterned with inlays and carvings. There are bending streets, markets and residential compounds, buildings, storied houses and towers, bells, drums, tones and music, clothes, decorations and fragrant flowers. Communication flows by water and land, a hundred merchants exchange and gather, and there are strange playthings and precious jewels to indulge the heart's desires. To their left and right are Jiawei, Shewei, Yebo, and others, sixteen great states, their distance to Tianzhu is perhaps two or three thousand li. They all together respect and serve them, and consider them to be at the centre of Heaven and Earth.

…

The state of Shizi is a state nearby Tianzhu. Its land is harmonious and comfortable, there are no differences between winter and summer. The Five Grains follows from when people plant them, it is not necessary to follow the seasons. Their state in the past was without people, there was only ghosts, spirits and dragons who lived there. Merchant from various states came to trade and hold market together. The ghosts and spirits did not make visible their bodies, but only produced precious treasure and put forth what value they would be worth. The merchants who agreed to the price took them. People from various states heard about the pleasures of their lands. Following that, they contended to arrive there, and sometimes there were those who stopped to live there. Consequently they achieved a great state.

Beginning of Jin's Yixi era [405 – 418], they first dispatched to present a jade image, passing through ten years before arriving. The image was 4 chi, 2 cun tall [c. 97 cm], the jade's colour was pure and lustrous, and the shape and construction was unusual and unique. This image during the successive Jin and Song periods was located at Waguan Temple. The temple first had from before five images of the Buddha made by the hand of the summoned scholar Dai Andao [Dai Kui] and Gu Changkang's painted chart of the vimāna. People of the period spoke of them as the Three Unmatched. Reaching the reign of Donglun of Qi [r. 498 – 501], he consequently destroyed the jade image. First he cut off the arms, then he took the body and made hair-ornaments and bracelets for his favourite concubine, the Honoured Consort Pan.

Song's 6th Year [429 AD] and 12th Year of Yuanjia [435 AD], their King Chalimohe dispatched envoys with tribute to present.

The various states South of the Sea for the most part are located on islands in the great sea south and south-west of Jiao Province, the distance for those close is three to five thousand li, those distant twenty or thirty thousand li. The western ones are adjacent to the various states of the Western Region. Middle of Han's Yuanding era [116 – 111 BC], they dispatched the General who Humbles the Waves, Lu Bode, laid open the Hundred Yue, and set up Rinan commandery. The various states that were outside its borders from the reign of Emperor Wu and onwards all sent tribute to court. In the period of Emperor Huan of Later Han [r. 146 – 167 AD], Daqin and Tianzhu both made use of this route to dispatch envoys envoys with tribute to present. Reaching the time of Sun Quan of Wu [r. 222 – 252], he dispatched the Assistant Officer for Promulgating Reform Zhu Ying and the Central Gentleman Kang Tai to communicate with them. Those they passed through and those they heard accounts of amounted to a hundred and several tens states, and following that there was established records and accounts. During the Jin era communications with the Central States were perhaps rare, and for that reason were not conveyed to the history officials. Reaching Song an Qi, there were arrivals from more than ten states, and they started to make accounts about them. Since Liang's change in fortune, they who served the correct calendar, redress tributary responsibilities, and sail the seas to arrive annually, exceed those of previous eras. Now [I] gather their manners, customs as roughly put forth, and patch them together as an Account of South of the Sea as follows:

The state of Linyi [MC: Lim-'ip] was originally Han's Xianglin county in Rinan commandery, at the boundary of ancient Yuechang. The General who Humbles the Waves, Ma Yuan, opened up Han's southern border, and set up this county. Their land's length and breadth could be 600 li, the distance from their city to the sea 120 li, and the distance to Rinan's southern border more than 400 li. To the north it borders Jiude commandery. From their southern border on a route by water and by foot for more than 200 li there is a western state of barbarians who likewise claim to be kings. [There] Ma Yuan erected a pair of copper pillars to show the location of Han's border.

Their state have golden mountains where the rocks hall wave a reddish colour, and from their midst gold is produced. The gold flies out at night, in shape it is like the lights from fireflies. They also produce hawksbill turtle, shell teeth, jibei, and sinking wood incense. Jibei is the name of a tree. At time their flowers are complete, they are like goose down. They draw out their threads and spin them to make cloth. Pure white it does not differ from ramie cloth. They also dye it completely with five colours and weave it to make mottled cloth. Sinking wood, local people cut and chop it up, and store it for years. It rots and decays until the heartwood alone remains. If put into water, it sinks, and for that reason it is called sinking incense. Next is that which does not sink and does not float, it is called zhan棧 incense.

[This is the process of making agarwood incense which nowadays you apparently can buy on Amazon.]

At the end of Han there was great chaos. The Board of Merit officer Ou Da killed the county Prefect and installed himself as King. It was transmitted for several generations, but after that the King had no heir and he installed his sister-son Fan Xiong. Xiong died and his son Yi inherited. Emperor Cheng of Jin's 3rd Year of Xiankang [337 AD], Yi died, and the slave Wen usurped and was installed.

Wen was originally the family slave of barbarian leader from Xijuan county in Rinan, Fan Zhi. He often herded the cattle at the mountain brooks where he found a snakehead fish with two heads. It changed and turned into iron, and following that he used it to forge a sword.

When the forging was complete, Wen turned toward a rock and made a prayer, saying:

If when cut the rock breaks, Wen will be King in this state.

Following that, he raised his sword and cut the rock, it was like cutting hay or dry wood. Wen in his heart was singularly amazed with it. Fan Zhi often sent him to trade with merchants that reached Linyi. Following that he taught the King of Linyi to build palace houses and military chariots, implements and weapons. The King favoured and relied on him. Later he then slandered the King's various sons, and each fled to other states. When the King died without an heir, Wen pretended to the neighbouring to go and receive the King's sons. He put poison within their liquid to kill them. Thereupon he compelled the people of the state and installed himself. He raised troops to attack the nearby small states, all were swallowed up and extinguished by him. He had a multitude of forty or fifty thousand people.

At the time the Inspector of Jiao province, Jiang Zhuang, sent his intimates Han Ji and Xie Zhi to oversee Rinan commandery from beginning to end. Both were covetous and ruthless, and the various states were troubled by them. Emperor Mu's 3rd Year of Yonghe [347 AD], the palace dispatched Xiahou Lan as Grand Warden, his intrusions and cruelties were particularly extreme. Linyi previously had no farm land, and he coveted Rinan's land for being rich and well-watered. He had often wanted to seize and take possession of it. Arriving at this point, he took the opportunity of the people's anger, and thereupon raised troops to assault Rinan. He killed Lan and used his corpse as a sacrifice to Heaven. He remained in Rinan for three years, and then turned back to Linyi.

The Inspector of Jiao province, Zhu Fan, after that dispatched the Controller-Protector Liu Xiong to defend Rinan. Wen again slaughtered and wiped him out. He advanced to rob Jiude commandery, and injured and murdered the personnel and common people. He dispatched envoys to report it to Fan, and desired to use Heng Mountain on the northern border of Rinan as the boundary. Fan did not allow it, and again dispatched Controller-Protectors Tao Huan and Li Qu to chastise him. Wen returned to Linyi, but soon after again took station in Rinan.

5th Year [349 AD], Wen died and his son Fo was installed, he was still stationed in Rinan. The General who Conquers the West, Huan Wen, dispatched the Controller-Protector Teng Jun, and the Grand Warden of Jiuzhen, Guan Sui to lead the troops of Jiao and Guang provinces to chastise him. Fo fortified the city and firmly defended. Sui ordered Jun to with ample troops to the front while Sui led 700 sturdy soldiers to cross over the ramparts from the rear. Fu's multitudes scattered in surprise, and he ran and fled. Sui pursued until Linyi, and Fo then requested to submit. Beginning of Emperor Ai's Shengping era [357 – 361], he again began with robbing and violence. The Inspector, Wen Fangzhi, chastised and routed him.

[LS54]

Gaogouli [MC: Kaw-kuw-lje], their ancestors sprung from Dongming. Dongming originally was a son of the northern Yi King of Guanli. The King of Li set out on a journey, and after that a young attendant became pregnant. The King of Li returned, and wanted to kill her. The young attendant said:

[I] previously saw above in the sky vapour resembling a chicken egg, it came down to me, following that [I] became pregnant.

The King imprisoned, and afterwards she then gave birth to a boy. The King set him up in the pigs' pen. The pigs breathed on him with the vapour from their mouths and he did not die. The king considered him to be a god, and therefore allowed him to be collected and reared. Reaching adulthood, he was good at shooting. The King dreaded his fierceness and again wanted to kill him. Dongming therefore ran and fled, and went south until a flooded and clogged up river. He struck the water with his bow, and fish and turtles all floated up to make a bridge. Dongming climbed onto it and managed to cross. He arrived in Fuyu [MC: Pju-yo] and became king there.

A separate branch of his descendants became Gaogouli. That state was Han's Xuantu commandery. It was located east of Liaodong, and the distance to Liadong was a thousand li. In the Han and Wei periods, it bordered Chaoxian and Huimo to the south, Woju to the east, and Fuyu to the north. In Emperor Wu of Han's 4th Year of Yuanfeng [107 BC], he extinguished Chaoxian, set up Xuantu commandery, and used Gaogouli as a county belonging to it.

The size of Gouli's territory is perhaps 2 000 l. Within it is Liao Mountain from where the Liao River sets out. Their royal capital is below of Wandu. There are many great mountains and deep valleys without uplands or marshes. The hundred families rely on them for their dwellings and are nourished by the brooks and rivers. Although natives, they have no good fields, and for that reason they are customarily modest with food. They are fond of arranged palaces and chambers, and left of where they dwell they erect great buildings to worship spirits and gods. They also sacrifice to the numinous stars and the altars of soil and grain.

The people are by nature nefarious and rash, and delight in robbing and plundering. Their officials are the Chancellor Assigner相加, duilu對盧, peizhe沛者, guzoujia古鄒加, Master of Accounts, youtai優台, Envoy, Black Clothes, and Predecessor. Honoured or humble, each have a rank and grade. In speech and various matters they have many similarities with Fuyu, [but] their nature and vitality, and their clothes and dress, differ.

Originally they had five clans, these were the Xiaonu section, Juenu section, Shennu section, Guannu section, and Guilou section. Originally the Xiaonu section had the kings, [but] they were weak and feeble, and the Guilou section replaced them,

In the times of Han, they were bestowed clothes and head-scarves, court dress, drums and pipes, usually they received them from Xuantu commandery. Later they little by little grew wilful and did not again go to the commandery, but on the eastern border they built a small city to receive them. Arriving at the present, they still name this city as the head-scarves goulou. “Goulou” is the Gouli name for “city”.

When they set up officials, if there is a duilu they do not set up a peizhe, if there is a peizhe, they do not set up a duilu. It is their custom to delight in song and dance. The men and women from the towns and and settlements within the state every night crowd together for song and sport. Their people are delighted when cleaning and purifying themselves, and are good at storing and brewing. When they kneel to do obeisance, they extend one foot, and when travelling on foot they always run.

They use the Tenth Month for a great assembly to worship Heaven, naming it “Dongming”. The clothes they wear for their public assemblies are always brocaded and embroidered, and with gold and silver, to decorate themselves. Their Great Assigners and Masters of Accounts on their heads wear something resembling head-scarves, but without a back. Their Lesser Assigners wear a twisted style, shaped like a conical cap.

Their state has no pens or prisons. If someone has committed a crime, they assemble the various Assigners to evaluate and discuss killing him, and confiscate his wife and children. In their customs they are fond of licentiousness, men and women often elope and seduce each other. Once they are married, they right then bit by bit make clothes for their funerals. When they die and are buried, they have an outer-coffin, but no inner-coffin. They are fond of lavish burials, gold and silver, riches and money are fully sent off with the dead. They pile up rocks to make a mound, and plant rows of pine trees and cypresses. When the older brother dies, they take as wife their sister-in-law.

Their horses are all small and easily climb mountains. The people of the state set highest vitality and strength, and are at ease with bow and arrow, sword and spear. They have heavy and light armour, and are practised in battles and fights. Woju and Donghui both belong to them.

At the beginning of Wang Mang, he issued out Gaoli troops to invade the Hu. They did not wish to go, and when he forcefully compelled to dispatched them, they all absconded and set out from the frontier as robbers and bandits. The provinces and commanderies resorted to finding fault with the Marquis of Gouli, Zou. Yan You enticed and then beheaded him Wang Mang was greatly pleased. He altered the name of Gaogouli to be Xiagouli. At this time it was Marquisate.

Arriving at the time span of [Emperors] Shang and An [105 – 125], their King was named Gong, he several times robbed Liaodong. The Grand Warden of Xuantu, Cai Feng, chastised him, but was unable to endure.

Gong died, his son Bogu was installed. In the time span of [Emperors] Shun [r. 125 – 144] and He [sic., ought to be Huan, r. 146 – 168], he again several times trespassed Liaodong to rob and plunder. Emperor Ling's 2nd Year of Jianning [169 AD], the Grand Warden of Xuantu, Geng Lin, chastised him, the cut off heads and captives numbered several hundreds. Bogu then surrendered and belonged to Liaodong. During Gongsun Du's sway over East of the Sea, Bogu communicated and was on good terms with him.

Bogu died, his son Yiyimo was installed. Yiyimo from the time of Bogu had already robbed Liaodong several times, and he also accepted more than five hundred households of absconded Hu. Middle of Jian'an [196 – 220], Gongsun Kang set out with an army to strike him. He crushed his state and burnt down his towns and settlements. The surrendered Hu likewise rebelled against Yiyimo. Yiyimo once more built a new state. After that Yiyimo again struck Xuantu. Xuantu made a combined strike with Liaodong and greatly routed him.

[WS100]

Gaogouli springs from Fuyu. They themselves say their first ancestor was Zhumeng. Zhumeng's mother was the daughter of Hebo [“Elder River”?]. She was shut inside a room by the King of Fuyu and was shone on by the sun. She pulled back her body to avoid it, the image from the sun again chased after her. Then she became pregnant, and gave birth to an egg, large as five dou. The King of Fuyu threw it away to the dogs. The dogs did not eat it. He threw it away to the pigs, the pigs also did not eat it. He threw it away on the road, cattle and horses avoided it. Later he threw it away in the wilderness, the multitude birds used their plumage to embrace it. The King of Fuyu sliced and cut it, but was unable to break it. Thereupon he returned it to its mothers. Its mother used materials to wrap it up, and set it up in warm place. Then there was a boy who broke through the shell and came out.

When he reached adulthood, he was courtesy named Zhumeng. In their customs, the word Zhumeng is “Good at Shooting”. The people of Fuyu considered Zhumeng not to be born of humans, and might have marvellous aspirations, so they requested to eliminate him. The King did not listen, and instructed him to rear horses. Zhumeng always secretly tested them, and knew which were good or bad. For the good steeds, he reduced their food to make them thin. The old and worn horses he reared good to make them fat. The King of Fuyu used the old ones to ride himself, and the thin ones he gave to Zhumeng. Later, during a winter hunt in the field, since Zhumeng was good at shooting, he limited him to a single arrow. Zhumeng, though his arrows were few, the beasts he killed were very many. The subjects of Fuyu again planned to kill him. Zhumeng's mother secretly knew about it, and informed Zhumeng, saying:

The state want to murder you, since you have talents and schemes. [You] ought to go far away into the four regions.

Zhumeng therefore together Wuyin and Wuwei, two persons, abandoned Fuyu, and ran south-east. In the middle of the road they came across a great river. They wished to cross, but there was no bridge. The people of Fuyu pursued them with considerable urgency. Zhumeng announced to the river, saying:

I am truly the son of the Sun and the maternal grandson of Hebo. Today [I am] running away, pursuing troops are about to catch up. What about getting to cross?

On the surface fish and a turtles floated side by side, making them a complete bridge. Zhumeng got across the fish, and the turtles then let loose, so the pursuing riders did not get to cross.

Zhumeng thereupon arrived at the Pushu river, where he happened to see three people. One person wore hemp clothes, on of them wore patched up clothes, one of them wore seaweed clothes. They and Zhumeng arrived at Heshenggu City. Thereupon he settled there, and titled it Gaogouli. Following that, he considered it to be his clan name.

Earlier, at the time when Zhumeng was in Fuyu, his wife got pregnant. After Zhumeng had fled, she gave birth to a child, his courtesy name at first was Lüxie. Reaching adulthood, he learned that Zhumeng was the ruler of a state. He promptly absconded with his mother and returned to him. He named him Lüda and entrusted him with the affairs of state. Zhumeng died, Lüda was installed in replacement. Lüda died, his son Ruli was installed in replacement. Ruli died, his son Molai was installed in replacement. He then campaigned against Fuyu. Fuyu was greatly defeated, and thereupon was governed and belonged to him.