#3 ce

Denarius of Galba minted in Rome, 68-69 CE.

North Temple of Atil - Temple of Theandrites

Atil, Hauran, Syria

211–212 CE

This small town contains two almost identically designed Roman temples, delicately fashioned from the local basalt stone. The south Temple stems from the Antonine period (151 CE) the second or North Temple (probably dedicated to the Nabataean deity, Theandrites) was built in 211–212 CE. The southern temple is better preserved, while the northern temple has been incorporated into a modern house and tomb. Both have attractively decorated facades with fine detail.

Temple of Bel  (3D)

Palmyra (Tadmor), Syria

32 CE

Temple of Bel  (3D)

Palmyra (Tadmor), Syria

32 CE

Nymphae of Palmyra

Palmyra (Tadmor), Syria

2nd century CE

Aqueduct pipes have been found along the main colonnaded street; they supplied water to fountains and public baths which were located alongside the street. Baths and fountains were an absolute requirement for a city which wanted to have a high status in the Roman Empire.

Tetrapylon of Palmyra

Palmyra (Tadmor), Syria

3rd century CE

Unlike most Roman cities in the region, the ancient city of Palmyra did not conform to the standard city plan of two intersecting colonnaded streets aligned to the points of the compass. The main colonnaded street of Palmyra twice changes direction, and at these points unique architectural devices were employed to make the route appear more harmonious. One of these is the monumental tetrapylon, marking the location of a ten degree pivot in the main colonnade and an important intersection.

The tetrapylon consists of a stepped square platform that features a plinth in each corner. Each plinth supports four columns that are topped by a solid cornice weighing over one hundred and fifty tons. The original columns were carved from pink granite that was imported from Aswan, Egypt. Only one of these columns survives, while the others are concrete reconstructions that date to a 1963 restoration. The monument is technically a group of four tetrapylons, and can more accurately be described as a tetrakionion ( tetrakionion is a type of tetrapylon in which the central crossing is not roofed, and the four corner-markers exist as four separate structures ). At the center of each is a pedestal that would have originally carried a statue. The tetrapylon is believed to have been constructed during the reign of Diocletian, at the end of the third century.

Funerary Temple (tomb number 86)

Palmyra (Tadmor), Syria

2nd century - 3rd century CE

Located in the northwestern periphery of the ancient city of Palmyra , at the end of the main colonnaded street, is a remarkable funerary temple. Surprisingly little is known about this temple tomb, as no inscriptions have been discovered, but it is believed to date from the late second or early third century. This particular style of tomb represents the later stages of Palmyrene funerary architecture, following the earlier underground and tower tombs. Being the only tomb found within the city walls, the shrine may have been connected to the royal family. It is often referred to as tomb number 86, based on archaeologist Michal Gawlikowski’s catalogue.

The building features a well-preserved portico supported by six columns with Corinthian capitals. The portico preceded a large room with steps leading to burial chambers located underneath. The southwest and northwest walls of the funerary temple  were reconstructed during modern restorations, while the portico has survived throughout the centuries. Around the portico are elaborate stone carved decorations including grapevines and floral patterns. The stunning location with the mountaintop Qalaat Shirkuh as a backdrop makes this monument particularly picturesque.

Temple of Allat

Palmyra (Tadmor), Syria

1st century CE

3D MODEL

The sanctuary of Allat included a temple which is clearly younger than the temenos itself. The same is true of the temple of Ba῾alshamin, and the two are very similar to each other, even if that of Allat is preserved only in its lower courses. Both are prostyle of Roman type with a Corinthian porch of four columns in front and two intercolumnia deep, facing East, both are articulated on three other sides with pilasters, both stand on low podiums and had plain pediments in front and back. 

The Lion of Al-lāt is statue that adorned the Temple, of a lion holding a crouching gazelle, was made from limestone ashlars in the early first century CE and measured 3.5 m (11 ft) in height, weighing 15 tonnes. The lion was regarded as the consort of Al-lāt. The gazelle symbolized Al-lāt's tender and loving traits, as bloodshed was not permitted under penalty of Al-lāt's retaliation. The lion's left paw had a partially damaged Palmyrene inscription  which reads: tbrk ʾ[lt] (Al-lāt will bless) mn dy lʾyšd (whoever will not shed) dm ʿl ḥgbʾ (blood in the sanctuary).

The temple of Allat can be dated from the internal evidence of two incomplete inscriptions as having been built in CE 148 or slightly later, barely twenty years or so after the cella of Ba῾alshamin. It is also clear that the same families were involved in the two sanctuaries. The fragmentary text from the doorway of Allat mentions two buildings: “this naos” and “the old hamana”. The latter term is Aramaic and applies to some sort of shrine. Here, for the first time, it can be ascribed with practical certainty to material remains. 

These remains consist of the foundations of a small rectangular building, broader than it is deep (7.35 through 5.50 m), with very thick walls around a narrow room, barely large enough for the door wings to open inwards. This shrine has been piously preserved within the second century temple in such a way that the new walls enclose the old, leaving between them a space averaging only 6 cm wide. Stone of a different kind was used in each case. As the floor of the old building was laid practically on the ancient ground level, and as it continued to be used, the internal level of the new temple was lower than expected: the front columns set on a bench around the porch and the floor of the cella a few steps down from the porch. 

The foundations of the new building also go deeper into the ground, which would have been no easy affair: they would have had to undermine the old shrine partly while keeping it intact at all costs. The cella is thus nothing more than a box containing the ancient tabernacle which remained in use as the adyton, the inner sanctum and seat of the goddess. This is apparently the only known case of such survival in Syria: usually, the adyton is built together with the temple, even if it may take the aspect of an independent building, as the two adytons of Bel, or incorporate some elements taken from the older phase, as in the case of Ba῾alshamin. 

The exterior changed radically and became Classical in inspiration, Hellenistic for Bel, Vitruvian for the other two. In each case, however, these Corinthian temples were meant to impress the viewer and proclaim their belonging to the modern Roman world, but they were just a disguise. All three keep in different ways the memory of smaller, simpler tabernacles dedicated to the same godheads in the same places, but only the temple of Allat actually preserved its predecessor intact. 

As the hamana of Allat remained complete, it would be pointless to roof the new cella above it. Indeed, there are good reasons to believe that the place was left open: not only has an outlet been arranged for rainwater, but more importantly, the pre-existing altar was left in front of the tabernacle but inside the temple, standing on a stone pavement not linked to either building; it could be used only if open to the sky. On the other hand, the porch should have been covered in the normal way. The narrow room inside the primitive shrine could not have any windows, as its walls are over 2 m thick. It was closed with two-winged doors which, when opened, revealed a statue inside a niche. 

We have recovered several fragments of the framing, consisting of jambs covered with vine-scrolls and of a lintel featuring a spread eagle. The slab on which the statue was placed is preserved in place and bears a series of grooves and mortises suggesting a graphic restoration. This is possible thanks to several small replicas of the enthroned goddess, seated between two lions and holding a long sceptre. The statue was probably not of one piece but composite, and could perhaps have been moved from the throne to be carried in processions. 

This is in sharp contrast to rituals that we can envisage for the relief images of other temples. But then, the idol of Allat was much older than the appearance of frontality in the art of Palmyra, and with it the possibility to represent the gods on a flat surface offered for viewing and veneration in other temples. Dated monuments allow us to fix the advent of frontality in the brackets between 15 and 30 CE. For its part, the idol of Allat (called “Lady of the House”), was offered by a certain Mattanai, being an ancestor of someone who mentioned the fact five generations later in 115 CE. This would bring back the original foundation to about 50 BCE at the latest (Gawlikowski 1990: 101–108). 

By the same token, the first shrine of Allat becomes the oldest known in Palmyra and the first of which some remains are still in place. Another inscription found nearby mentions a hamana built in 31/30 BCE for the solar god Shamash. A square foundation 4 m to the side is still to be seen there, exactly on the axis of the Allat temple. It could have once contained a small inner room and the inscription could once have been placed in its wall, though we cannot establish this with absolute certainty. Another similar foundation was found a few years ago very close to the Allat temple. Possibly, the original temenos contained several such chapels, each for a different god. The Vitruvian cella had intruded in its midst about 150 CE without changing the character of the cult and scrupulously keeping the old installations in place. 

The temple of Allat was destroyed twice: it was sacked once in 272 by the Roman troops of the emperor Aurelian and again, definitely, by a Christian mob at the end of the fourth century. In the meantime, the sanctuary remained in use within the limits of a legionary camp for over a century. One may imagine that access to it was restricted as far as the civilian population was concerned. The temple’s interior was radically changed during this time. Indeed, the old tabernacle contained within the cella had been destroyed together with the statue on the first occasion, while the walls of the cella seem to have remained intact. 

At any rate, a restoration effort occurred very soon afterwards. Instead of trying to rebuild the shrine, its foundations were left in place and covered with a kind of platform including some sculptured fragments, which were thus piously preserved. We could recover some votive reliefs of the first to third centuries and some elements of the niche once framing the seated statue of the goddess. The cult image itself had to be replaced. Four short columns were brought in and set up in front of the masonry preserving the broken remains to support roofing in the form of a square canopy or perhaps a shelter from wall to wall over the whole ruin of the primitive shrine. 

Under the canopy a new statue was fixed. Fallen and broken during the second sack, it has survived for the most part and could be reassembled. The statue is a second century copy of a statue of Athena, executed in Pentelic marble. It is clear that the original was Athenian and conceived in the circle of Pheidias. It has replaced an old and venerable, but no doubt primitive statue, and this in a time right after a military disaster and economic collapse. It could hardly be imported from Greece in these conditions, but could rather have embellished some profane public building in the city before receiving divine honours in the restored temple. The late restoration was probably an initiative of a Roman legionary legate under Aurelian, who wanted to reconcile the destitute local goddess, seeing in her no doubt Minerva, one of the standard Roman army cults. If so, the statue does not provide evidence for the cult of Allat, but is rather one of a series of Classical marbles imported to Palmyra for adornment of public buildings.

Sources: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5