stick a flag in it!

All empires, regardless of power or influence, inevitably collapse. A widely-held misconception regarding The Aztec Empire is that the Aztecs fell victim to Spanish conquistadors, leading to the empire's downfall. Spanish conquistadors did play a role in Aztec collapse, but Spanish victory over the Aztecs was made possible by decades of altepetl attacks, slowly weakening the empire's military forces. Let's explore the role of altepetl in The Aztec Empire's decline, fueled by altepetl's religious resentments.

Conquering neighboring territories caused the Aztecs to receive divine praise from their gods and goddesses. Additionally, conquering neighboring territories caused the Aztecs to gain military power through recruitment of men from allied and conquered altepetl. As the Aztec military grew stronger, the civilization became increasingly inspired by both Huitzilopochtli, god of war, and personal motives to expand the empire. This expansion forced altepetl to produce routine material and human sacrifices to the Aztecs for the benefit of Aztec gods and goddesses. The Aztec Empire, on many occasions, stole slaves and prisoners from nearby tribes for ritualistic purposes. Consequently, many altepetl harbored religious resentments towards the Aztecs, and attempted to rebel against Aztec control. During the reign of Aztec ruler Montezuma II from 1503 to 1520, both the empire and altepetl rebellions were at their peaks.

Source: Laack, Isabel. Aztec Religion and Art of Writing: Investigating Embodied Meaning, Indigenous Semiotics, and the Nahua Sense of Reality. Brill, 2019. Print. 

Image Source: “Montezuma II.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moctezuma_II

Despite constant rebellions from altepetl, Montezuma II defeated neighboring tribes' attempts to gain sovereignty. Altepetl rebellions, however, significantly weakened The Aztec Empire through exhaustion of Aztec resources and military forces. Shortly after the altepetl rebellions, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortez attempted to invade The Aztec Empire. Unstable relations between the Aztecs and conquered altepetl gave Cortez the opportunity to form alliances with altepetl, most notably the Tlaxcalans, known as long-term enemies of the Aztec, and strong war fighters. The Tlaxcalans were largely responsible for Cortez's later victory over The Aztec Empire. Towing a large army of angry natives into the Aztecs' capital city of Tenochtitlan, Cortez quickly imprisoned Montezuma II. The ruler eventually submitted to Spanish forces and, in doing so, lost the respect of the Aztec civilization. Spanish accounts claim Aztecs living in Tenochtitlan bombarded Montezuma II with stones and arrows during Montezuma II's frugal attempts to negotiate peace, causing Montezuma II to suffer fatal wounds. Aztec accounts claim Cortez murdered Montezuma II, causing the conquistador's regime to be nearly destroyed in exiting Tenochtitlan by the Aztec regime.

Source: Read, Kay Almere. Time and Sacrifice in the Aztec Cosmos. Indiana University Press, 1998. Print. 

Image Source: Britannica Editors. “Montezuma II.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Montezuma-II

If expansion of The Aztec Empire was primarily fueled by religious worship of the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli, what was the motive behind The Aztec Empire's consolidation? Similarly, how did the Aztecs maintain control over conquered territories? The answer to both of these questions, and many others throughout human history, is religious indoctrination! Let's explore this idea further.

The Aztecs were continually consolidating power through war, and that was largely what shaped their civilization as a whole. Conquered territories operating under Aztec rule were referred to by the Aztecs as altepetl. Although the Aztecs allowed altepetl to uphold small degrees of sovereignty, religion was heavily controlled by The Aztec Empire to build recruitment. Gods and goddesses of Aztec mythology required constant veneration, including sacrificial gifts and unwavering loyalty. Forcing altepetl to worship Aztec gods and goddesses elicited great praise from Aztec patron deities. Altepetl were expected to support The Aztec Empire and Tenochtitlan (the empire's capital city), as well as pay tribute to Huitzilopochtli (god of war) and Tlaloc (god of agriculture) through material offerings. Tributes were expected every eighty days. The Aztecs also expected altepetl to include Huitzilopochtli in their religious practices.

Source: Brumfiel, Elizabeth. “Aztec Hearts and Minds: Religion and the State in the Aztec Empire.” Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, by Susan E. Alcock et al., Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 283–310. Print. 

Image Source: “The Aztec Empire.” Students of History Teaching Resources, Students of History, 2023, https://www.studentsofhistory.com/the-aztec-empire

Alongside forcing altepetl to pay tribute to Aztec patron deities through material offerings and religious practices, altepetl were forced to pay tribute to the Aztec sun god, Tonatiuh, through human sacrifice. Human sacrifices were meant to please Tonatiuh: the deity required human blood in exchange for providing the Aztecs with light, warmth, and life. The Aztecs believed that, without sacrificial tributes, Tonatiuh would stop the sun's movement, leading to the Earth's death. Altepetl would often send slaves or prisoners of war as human offerings. Human tributes, like material tributes, were expected every eighty days. If an altepetl society failed to uphold their end of the exchange, The Aztec Empire would eliminate the territory's sovereignty, sending military forces to destroy religious temples, damage public infrastructure, and implement constant military surveillance. The Aztec Empire viewed religion as a means of internal and external control; a tool used to enforce indoctrination and piety for the Aztecs' benefit.

Source: Carrasco, Davíd. City of Sacrifice : The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Beacon Press, 1999. Print. 

Image Source: Preskar, Peter. “Feeding the Gods  - The Horrific Aztec Practice of Human Sacrifice.” Medium, Short History, 2023, https://short-history.com/aztec-human-sacrifice-3bb6577c81a5

Mesoamerican civilizations are often forgotten in discussions of ancient imperialism. Controlling the most powerful empire in central Mexico during the 15th and early 16th centuries, The Aztec Empire grew quickly in territory and influence, largely due to the civilization's religious beliefs and practices. Let's explore how Aztec religion catalyzed The Aztec Empire's bloody expansion through romanticized ideals of war and conquest!

Ancient Aztec religion was undoubtedly polytheistic. Although minute details concerning Aztec gods and goddesses are debated among scholars, Aztec worshipping of hundreds of deities is widely accepted as historical canon. Individuals living within The Aztec Empire likely had patron deities, chosen to reflect personal desires, but two deities held universal importance through The Aztec Empire: Huitzilopochtli, god of war, and Tlaloc, god of rain. Consequently, the Aztecs heavily revered a duality of war and agriculture. Instigating war was viewed as essential in honoring Huitzilopochtli. Maintaining high yields of maize, beans, tomatoes, and pumpkins was viewed as essential in honoring Tlaloc.

Source: Solís Olguín Felipe R, et al. The Aztec Empire. Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2004. Print. 

Image Source: Meehan, Evan. “Huitzilopochtli.” Mythopedia, Mythopedia, 2022, https://mythopedia.com/topics/huitzilopochtli

In Aztec mythology, Huitzilopochtli led the Aztecs to Tenochtitlan, later serving as the civilization's capital city. Huitzilopochtli demanded constant veneration through violent sacrifice after every war victory and defeat. Aztec warriors who died during battle were believed to be reincarnated as hummingbirds, the highest honor bestowed by Huitzilopochtli. Desiring to please Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecs remained in a state of war that subsequently built an expansive empire through conquering surrounding tribes. Aztec men were raised to become warriors, honoring Huitzilopochtli through fighting until their violent demise. This brutality-centered mindset, deriving from religious idealizations, motivated the Aztecs to conquer central Mexico. In other words, The Aztec Empire's expansion occurred to serve a patron deity of Aztec mythology.

Source: Bassett, Molly H. The Fate of Earthly Things: Aztec Gods and God-Bodies. First edition., University of Texas Press, 2015. Print.

Image Source: Dozier, Amy. “Huitzilopochtli.” Dribbble, Dribbble, 2023, https://dribbble.com/shots/4132073-Huitzilopochtli

Glorifications of the Roman Empire have existed since antiquity. Unfortunately, glorification coincides with falsification, and the Roman Empire is no exception: obsession over ancient Romans' lives has lead to the creation of one of the worst, and inaccurate, interpretations of ancient Roman citizens: their constant wearing of togas and partaking in toga parties. Let's examine the TOGAlly distorted, westernized view of the ancient Roman toga, as well as its role in ancient Roman society.

Rather than inventing the toga from scratch, ancient Romans took inspiration from ancient Greeks and Etruscans in designing the garment (shocking, right?). Both ancient Greeks and Etruscans wore draped clothing, but the Roman toga stood out stylistically: woven from untreated wool, togas were meant to be worn over a linen tunic, exemplifying modesty. Unlike modern toga party outfits, consisting of cheap sheets synched strategically across wearers' naked bodies to highlight physical assets, Roman togas were thrown loosely over preexisting clothing, eliminating indecency. If ancient Romans were to walk into a modern toga party, they would critique partygoers' lack of coverage: the idea of wearing a toga with nothing underneath was unheard of in ancient Rome.

Source: Cartwright, Mark. “The Roman Toga.” World History Encyclopedia, World History Encyclopedia, 11 Sept. 2019, www.worldhistory.org/article/48/the-roman-toga/.

Image Source: overdressedforlife. “Fashion History Facts: The Toga.” OverDressed for Life, WordPress.com, 5 Feb. 2020, www.overdressedforlife.com/2020/02/05/fashion-history-facts-the-toga/. 

Everyone loves Disney movies, but does anyone notice their exuding of cultural appropriation? Unfortunately, the company's roots in racism extend into the modern era. Let's explore the well-known, 1992 Disney's Aladdin through colonial interpretations of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. The film's stereotyping of Persian culture runs more rampant than Aladdin after stealing dates from marketplace vendors.

Aladdin's western producers make their biases against the Middle East known immediately in the film's opening song, Arabian Nights:

"Where they cut off your ear / If they don't like your face/ It's barbaric, but hey, it's home"

European colonizers' tendency to label cultures different from their own as savage and unsophisticated derives from western need to justify exerting control over non-western cultures. Consequently, the Achaemenid Persian Empire's military skills and political administrations were defined by the west as forms of inhumane brutality and domineering, while Europeans labeled their own terrorizing and forceful conversion of non-western cultures as necessary to achieve a metaphorical "greater good". In actuality, the Persians used their skills and administrations to increase trade throughout their empire for the true "greater good" of their people.

Source: “Persian Empire.” UShistory.org, Independence Hall Association, 2022, https://www.ushistory.org/civ/4e.asp

Image Source: “The Original Lyrics of ‘Arabian Nights’ in 'Aladdin'.” Zimbio, Livingly Media, Inc, 2022, https://www.zimbio.com/The+Biggest+Disney+Movie+Controversies/articles/MjhJFTxyeuD/Original+Lyrics+Arabian+Nights+Aladdin

Despite all characters in the film being arguably Persian, Aladdin and Jasmine, identified as the protagonists of the film, possess European features and "white" accents, while Jafar, identified as the antagonist of the film, possesses features and an accent common among individuals who lived in the Achaemenid Persian Empire. European colonizers associated "good" with western and "bad" with non-western. Consequently, individuals living in the Achaemenid Persian Empire were labeled as threats and ostracized from the west's definitions of civilized. In actuality, the Persians were a diverse culture, and many of the individuals living in their empire belonged to conquered territories that didn't prioritize violence or cruelty, and were largely allowed to keep independence under Persian rule.

Source: Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.).” The Met, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm

Image Source: Pantozzi, Jill. “Aladdin Finds Its Jafar Plus Adds Another Woman to the Disney Story.” The Nerdy Bird, The Nerdy Bird, 2017, http://thenerdybird.com/aladdin-finds-jafar-adds-another-woman-to-the-story/

Aladdin takes place in Agrabah, a fictional city representing western perceptions of the Middle East. Both the city itself and the people within it are heavily stereotyped. Depicted as an exotic fantasy of technicolor and greed, where women are objectified bellydancers and men are either poor merchants or sly thieves, Agrabah reeks of European idealism, highlighting colonizers' beliefs in the "mysteries" and "dangers" of foreign world powers, such as the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Consequently, Persians were viewed as enemies of Europeans, despite Europeans making assumptions of non-western cultures' inferiorities and shortcomings. In actuality, the Achaemenid Persian Empire cared little for European affairs, instead expanding into regions of modern-day Africa and Asia at the height of the empire's power under ruler Darius the Great.

Source: Beviano, Christina. “Orientalism in Film: Aladdin Over the Last Century.” Orientalism in Pop Culture, Orientalism in Pop Culture, 2023, https://wgst2013.domains.drew.edu/christina-bevianos-post/film-aladdin/

Image Source: “Agrabah.” Disney Wiki, Disney Wiki Francophone, 2019, https://disney.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Agrabah

In recent years, Disney has attempted to correct the film's orientalist overtones through producing a live-action remake; however, the original story of Aladdin is inherently stereotyped to fit colonialist, European views of the "exotic" East, meaning the company should leave adaptations of Aladdin in the past and focus on producing new films that won't be tainted by their racist counterparts.

Sweaty balls, LED lights, blaring music, and greasy foods: staples of an American Friday night, right?! Well, you'll want to rethink modern, US associations with bowling, because ancient Egyptians began playing the game during the 6th century, in approximately 5,200 BCE. Let's pin down the details of this cultural colonization!

Ancient Egyptians' enjoyment in knocking down objects with a ball has spanned globally and across millennium, from antiquity to the present. Unlike modern bowling, early versions of the game involved minimal rules and objectives, and less competition among players.

Source: Forbes, Mia. “10 Ancient Egyptian Inventions That Will Surprise You.” The Collector, TheCollector, 3 Sept. 2020, https://www.thecollector.com/ancient-egyptian-inventions/  

Image Source: “A History of Bowling - Ancient Times.” Bowling Vision, Bowling Vision Ltd, 12 Nov. 2021, http://bowlingvision.com/history-of-bowling/

The Egyptians viewed bowling as an elitist activity performed by pharaohs during their free time. Early forms of the game involved pharaohs throwing stones at a hole in the ground, as pictured above, and later forms of the game involved pharaohs throwing balls at various objects, typically pin-like vases made from stone and porcelain.

Source: Young, Lauren. “When Bowling Was a Sport Reserved for Royalty.” Atlas Obscura, Atlas Obscura, 2 Mar. 2017, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/tudor-bowling-ball

Source: “The History of Bowling: From Ancient Egypt to Today.” Bowling Fix, Bowling Fix, 16 July 2022, https://bowlingfix.com/the-history-of-bowling-from-ancient-egypt-to-today/

Image Source: Young, Lauren. “When Bowling Was a Sport Reserved for Royalty.” Atlas Obscura, Atlas Obscura, 2 Mar. 2017, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/tudor-bowling-ball

Image Source: Giles, Sue. “Ancient Egyptian Parents Put This in Their Child's Grave to Play with in the Afterlife.” Museum Crush, Museum Crush, 25 Jan. 2018, https://museumcrush.org/ancient-egyptian-parents-put-this-in-their-childs-grave-to-play-with-in-the-afterlife/

Most bowling balls were made from grain or corn husks covered in leather and string, but elaborate designs were also made from stone and porcelain. Distances between players and pins weren't specified, quantities and uniformities of pins weren't consistent, and alleyways, gutters, and foul lines were nonexistent. The game was always played in designated rooms of pharaohs' palaces, the original "bowling alleys" of human history.

Source: “A History of Bowling - Ancient Times.” Bowling Vision, Bowling Vision Ltd, 12 Nov. 2021, http://bowlingvision.com/history-of-bowling/

120 million people bowl each year, and 70 million of those individuals live in America. In fact, bowling is the most played sport in America by a wide margin. Despite the game being unofficially recognized as a western invention, the reality is modern bowling wouldn't exist without Egyptians' introducing of the game to the west through physical and cultural colonization of objects and ideas. In the United States, bowling is an integral form of entertainment: it's almost impossible to find someone who doesn't bowl semi-regularly, or at least occasionally, because the game combines social interaction, manageable challenge and reward, releasing of potential aggression and tension, and (typically) consumption of food between frames. It's a true strikeout.

Source: Schwartz, Forrest. “A Case for Traditional Bowling's Growth.” Jay Lanes Bowling, Jay Lanes Bowling, 30 Sept. 2022, https://jaylanesbowling.com/a-case-for-traditional-bowlings-growth/

There will come a day when washed up, elitist white men decide to stop naming concepts after forgotten Latin jargon and repetitive suffixes. Today isn't that day! So, what is imperialism, and who is an imperialist?

Imperialism: deriving from the Latin imperium (referring to power or rule), the concept is best defined as the process of an entity (usually a country or empire) extending its prestige and influence through force, perceived diplomacy, or innate superiority to achieve economic, political, or cultural gain.

Imperialists: individuals who support and engage in the practice of imperialism; typically those of high status or importance who believe their power is either given by the divine or justified through a duty to convert cultures they perceive as inferior.

Ancient Example: Phoenician Imperialism Exercising control over the eastern Mediterranean from the 15th to 3rd century BCE, Phoenician imperialism was rooted in commerce, specifically trade and commodities. Due to expert navigational skills, the civilization monopolized trading routes in the Greek islands, southern Europe, northern Africa, and ancient Britain. The Phoenicians expanded material influence and prestige through natural diplomacy and skillsets, aiding their belief of innate superiority that, consequently, fueled economic, political, and cultural gain.

Source: Cartwright, Mark. “Phoenician Colonization.” World History Encyclopedia, 14 April 2016, https://www.worldhistory.org/Phoenician_Colonization/

Image Source: Akigka. “Phoenician Trade Network.” World History Encyclopedia, 26 April 2012, https://www.worldhistory.org/image/116/phoenician-trade-network/

Modern Example: United States Imperialism The United States uses its current prestige as a global superpower to exploit developing nations through economic, cultural, and militaristic force. Although the United States does not currently work to expand its territory, the country's imperialistic promotion causes it to establish spheres of influence across continents, most notably the Middle East in the 21st century CE. Capitalism also acts as a motive for United States expansion, with influence of innate superiority and diplomacy consequently fueling economic, political, and cultural gain worldwide.

Source: Chomsky, Noam. “Modern-Day American Imperialism: Middle East and Beyond.” Boston University, 28 April 2008, https://www.chomsky.info/20080424/   Image Source: Rui, Liu. “Milking the Crisis.” Global Times, 09 March 2022, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202203/1254435.shtml