Arab conquest of Sicily
Arab raids of Sicily started in the AD 660s, when the island was part of the Byzantine Empire, Rome’s successor in the east. In AD 827, the Arab Aghlabid dynasty of North Africa invaded and quickly took control over the west side of the island, but it was not until AD 965 that Muslims had fully conquered Sicily.
The Arab Aghlabid rulers minted coins on Sicily even before they completed their conquest, using the gold dinar and silver dirham coins of their homeland, Ifriqiya (now in modern Tunisia). These were soon replaced by the gold quarter dinar, and the silver kharruba, one sixteenth of a dirham. These less valuable coins were more practical for the island’s economy. The system was adopted by the Aghlabids’ Fatimid successors, who ruled Sicily from Egypt.
The Muslim conquerors and settlers lived mostly peacefully with their Christian and Jewish neighbours, who were free to keep their faith as long as the religious tax, the jizya, was paid. The Arabs revolutionised agriculture by introducing new irrigation techniques and crops, such as oranges, rice, sugar cane, date palms and cotton. They only ruled Sicily for two centuries, but their cultural influence was profound and long-lasting.
This marble altar decoration was sculpted around AD 875–900 for a new church built in Kirkent, modern Agrigento, the second most important Muslim city on the island in this period. The Tree of Life appears in ancient Middle Eastern cultures, often representing fertility or immortality. On this altar, the Tree of Life represents Christ’s cross. The symbol became popular in the Byzantine Empire through the trade of eastern silk textiles. On these, as here, lions and deer frequently flank the tree. This tree is a date palm, a species reintroduced on Sicily for cultivation by the Arab conquerors which also represented resurrection and immortality, cornerstones of the Christian faith.
Under the Norman King Roger II (r. 1130–1154), Sicily was characterised by an unusual, but fragile, religious tolerance. Jews, Muslims, Orthodox Greek Byzantines, Christian Normans and Italians lived together in one multi-ethnic kingdom. Roger II welcomed scholars of all races and faiths to his court. As a result, monumental palaces, cathedrals, and churches combined influences from North Africa, the Byzantine east and the Roman legacy in the west. Byzantine-style mosaics featured prominently throughout their architecture, as did Islamic-influenced decorations – large Arabic inscriptions, ‘honeycomb’ ceilings (muqarnas), and Islamic paintings and domes.
At the centre of his palace in Palermo, Roger II built a private Byzantine-style chapel with an adjoining hall for royal audiences. This marble Arabic inscription reading ‘…kiss its corner after having embraced it, and contemplate the beauty that it contains’ framed one of the doors. The script and foliage designs are inlaid in green and red porphyry. The text describes a ritual involving the Ka’aba, the building at the centre of Islam’s most sacred mosque that forms part of the Hajj, the annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca. The text of the ritual was appropriated in Fatimid Egypt, where it was used to pay homage to the caliph. Roger borrowed it from the Fatimids as he modelled parts of his administration and visual culture on theirs.
At the heart of the Norman Palace, the Palatine Chapel (Cappella Palatina) was the jewel in the crown of Roger II’s architectural achievements. Byzantine mosaic artists adapted their skills for the western church architecture. Southern Italian artisans made the inlaid marble floor. Most impressive, however, was the ceiling created by Fatimid woodworkers and painters from North Africa. Star-and-cross patterns framed by ‘honeycomb’ vaulting created a complex stalactite structure. Every inch was plastered and painted with Arabic inscriptions and scenes from Roger’s court, which was based on that of the Fatimids in Egypt.
Find out more about the cosmopolitan history of this remarkable island in our exhibition Sicily: culture and conquest (21 April – 14 August 2016).
Sponsored by Julius Baer
In collaboration with Regione Siciliana
Coin of Fatimid ruler al-Zahir. Sicily, 1021–1036.
Coin of Fatimid ruler al-Mustansir. Sicily, 1036–1094.
Marble altar carved with the Tree of Life. Valle dei Templi, Agrigento, Sicily, AD 875–900. Museo Archeologico Regionale di Agrigento.
Inlaid marble and porphyry Arabic inscription. Palermo, Sicily, 1130s–1140s. Galleria Interdisciplinare Regionale della Sicilia di Palazzo Abatellis, Palermo.
Wooden ceiling panel from the Norman Palace in Palermo. Made some time between 1130–1200. Galleria Interdisciplinare Regionale della Sicilia di Palazzo Abatellis, Palermo.
