The Pre-WWI Alliance System: Triple Entente v. Triple Alliance

The alliance system in Europe was one of the causes of the First World War (1914-18), although it did not make war inevitable. In the first decade of the 20th century, the Triple Entente powers of Great Britain, France, and Russia stood against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (which remained neutral when war broke out but then joined the Entente powers in 1915). The terms of each state's commitment to its allies varied, but a general promise of aid was either stated or inferred. It was hoped that the system of alliances would create a balance of power, deter aggression, and maintain peace, but the alliances only added to a long list of other causes of WWI. In the end, signatures on paper became subservient to each nation's determination to either remain or become a global power, which resulted in leaders and generals competing for control of the territory and resources of other nations.

The Triple Entente Powers

Britain was a well-established parliamentary democracy in the early 20th century. The monarchy, in the form of George V (reign 1910-1936), was little more than a figurehead of government. The British Empire enclosed some 400 million people in over 50 countries. Thanks to the Industrial Revolution and following centuries of imperialism around the globe, Britain's resources and military (especially its navy, the largest in the world) made it the most powerful and wealthiest country of all. Britain's position of dominance was being challenged by both the United States and Germany, the former in economic terms and the latter via an arms race. In 1904, the Entente Cordiale began, which saw closer diplomatic relations between Britain and France, removing conflicts of interest in Africa and Asia, but not covering mutual assistance in the case of a war in Europe. Germany, however, suspected a secret clause in the Entente Cordiale which did promise mutual military aid, such was the air of suspicion in European diplomacy in this period. In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention was signed, which diffused tensions over rival claims to Afghanistan, Tibet, and Persia (modern Iran). In 1912, Britain and France strengthened their alliance, with the former promising the formation of an expeditionary force to be sent to France if required.

France was a democratic republic headed by an elected president. Unlike in Britain, the French government contained a number of generals. The French Empire included North and West Africa and governed 60 million people. However, this empire was in decline, with a notable defeat to Prussia in 1870 (Prussia later became a part of Germany). France had once dominated world trade, but here, too, it was in decline by 1914. France formed an alliance with Russia in 1894, which promised mutual aid should they be attacked by Germany, Italy, or Austria-Hungary. In 1911, German interference in French Morocco, in an incident known as the Agadir or Moroccan Crisis, further heightened the tensions between the European powers. Britain supported France, and Germany backed down but gained a slice of Congo as compensation. The incident meant that European powers now suspected Germany was intent on war sooner or later.

Russia was not a democracy but was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II (reign 1894-1917). The Tsar's autocratic rule had already been challenged by the failed Russian Revolution of 1905. The Russian Empire included around 160 million people, but there were many ethnic groups and nationalities, some of which wanted to break away from the empire and rule themselves. Russia was behind the more advanced nations in terms of the modernisation brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Around 80% of the population worked in agriculture, and their poverty meant most farmers were one bad harvest away from famine. In 1907, Britain, France, and Russia joined together in the Triple Entente. Henceforth, these countries and those states that later joined them were often called the Allies.

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The Triple Alliance Tlatoque 

I was sketching the two remaining kings of the Triple Alliance, and decided to throw in Ahuizotl as well to have the three together.

“O friends, to a good place we’ve come to live, come in springtime! In that place a very brief moment! So brief is life!” -Nezahualcoyotl

In the downtown Zocalo district, there is a small monument that you could easily miss unless you were looking for it. It is the Garden of the Triple Alliance, a peaceful monument to a violent empire. The Triple Alliance is a term used to describe the trio of Nahuatl city-states in central Mexico, Tenochtitlan (what is now Mexico City), Texcoco and Tlacopan, that together conquered much of what is today Mexico. While their dialects and religions varied slightly, they came from similar ancestors and had similar cultures. This small, quaint garden is a funny way to commemorate an empire that expanded through war and conquest, and would at times require sacrificial victims as tribute. The Alliance’s oppression and subjugation of other Mesoamerican peoples, such as the Tlaxacala and Toltecs, led in part to their fateful decisions to help the invading Spanish. But today this park is a lovely and peaceful spot amidst the chaotic churn of downtown. 

Also commemorated in this park is Nezahualcoyotl, the prince of Texcoco. Born in 1402, Nezahualcoyotl (often translated as “Hungry Coyote”) became prince of his territory at the young age of fifteen, but was overthrown and forced into exile. Nezahualcoyotl would spend three years fighting and return with an army of 10,000 soldiers to return his family and regain his throne. As prince, Nezxhualcoyotl supported the artists and philosophers in his kingdom, and encouraged education. In the incredible historical novel Aztec, Nezahualcoyotl is portrayed as a cautious and clever leader, in contrast to the egotistical and ambitious, younger Moctezuma. Rebuffing Moctezuma’s desires to continue to use their armies to expand the empire, Nezahualcoyotl wisely plans to conserve his kingdom’s resources for whatever dark forces are amassing in the east. At that point in the novel (and history), both Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl have heard reports of strange, white men appearing on the eastern coast, and Nezahualcoyotl is proven right to view this threat as gravely serious. 

There is something romantic, even cinematic, about this figure: A prince in exile, a warrior poet fighting to retake his kingdom. Later a wise, older ruler who can see the danger and destruction that is to come. There is of course, something deeply tragic about Nezahualcoyotl, too: He was a man who may have sensed his civilization would soon face an existential threat, and even with his foresight, knew there was very little he, or anyone, could do about it. 

Nezahualcoyotl survives today not just in history, but in his writing. He is considered to be one of the greatest poets of ancient Mexico. The royalty and nobility of the Triple Alliance were expected to be well educated in many subjects, and nobles were taught how to use both the pen and the sword. There are some historical parallels with the samurais of Japan and the scholarly nobles of ancient Greece and Rome. It is amazing that we still have access to his poems, considering that poetry and literature at that time was often times memorized and reproduced orally, as well as the fact that there was great literary and cultural destruction by the Spanish in the generations after the Conquest. 

Here is an excerpt of a poem written by Nezahualcoyotl, perhaps reflecting on his own experience of war and reconquest: 

The battlefield is the place: where

one toasts the divine liquor in war, 

where are stained red the divine 

eagles, 

Where the tigers howl, 

Where all kinds of precious stones

rain from ornaments, 

where wave headdresses rich with

fine plumes, 

where princes are smashed to bits. 

Here is another excerpt of a poem that is kind of like a pre-modern take on “these are a few of my favorite things”: 

I love the song of the mockingbird,

bird of four hundred voices;

I love the color of jade

and the drowsy perfume of flowers;

but more than these, I love

my fellow human beings.

In recent years, as Mexico has strived to decolonize their national identity and intentionally celebrate their long ignored indigenous roots, Nezahualcoyotl has been frequently honored as a wise and fair ruler in Mexican history. There is a neighborhood named after him in Mexico City that, true to the character of the man, is home to many artists. He is even honored with his likeness on the 100 peso bill. 

But I imagine the actual man would take all this recognition in stride. Like another poet who once famously wrote “nothing gold can stay”, Nezahualcoyotl also wrote about the impermanence and ever changing nature of life:

Truly do we live on earth?

Not forever on earth; only a little while here.

Although it be jade, it will be broken,

Although it be gold, it is crushed,

Although it be quetzal feather, it is torn asunder.

Not forever on earth; only a little while here.

The Causes of WWI

The origins of the First World War (1914-18) are many and varied, with some even dating back several decades, but a political assassination in the Balkans in the summer of 1914 was the spark that blew up Europe's political powder keg, that is, the highly volatile mix of imperialistic governments, rising nationalism, and the obligations of a complex web of international alliances that characterised European diplomacy in the early 20th century.

The consensus of most historians today is that WWI was not started by a single nation, but that the coming of war was, in the end, the collective responsibility of all parties involved, that is the pre-war Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary and the Triple Entente (aka the Allies) of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Other states that joined the conflict at various stages include Belgium, Japan, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Greece, Portugal, and the United States, as well as colonies of the various European powers in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The first global war, the first wholly mechanised war, and the first arrival of total war, this dreadful conflict ended in 1918 and claimed over 8 million lives.

The main causes of WWI were:

The rise of a unified Germany

The imbalance of power in 20th-century Europe

An arms race between the major powers

The rise in European imperialism and rivalry in Africa and Asia

The increase in opposing international alliances

The rise in nationalism in Central Europe

The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

All of the above factors contributed to the outbreak of a conflict that "was really the culmination of a long drawn-out crisis within the European system" (McDonough, 3). The exact weight of each of the above causes remains a point of debate amongst historians.

The Rise of Germany

Germany as a state was born in 1871, following the Prussian victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1) and the unification of the German states. Unified Germany had a large, disciplined, and highly trained army and fast-growing navy (it would be the second largest in the world after Britain by 1914), a powerful economic base (in fact, the fastest growing economy in Europe), and a booming population (rising from 49 to 66 million between 1890 and 1914). Suddenly, there was a new power in Central Europe that could challenge the other established powers, notably Britain, France, Russia, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The 'German Question' now arose, that is, a debate over what Germany's future foreign policy might be and how this would affect the balance of power in Europe.

German politics was dominated by its first chancellor, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who held power from 1871 to 1890. Bismarck's approach to foreign policy was to reassure other powers that Germany was satisfied with its present position and status in Europe. Nevertheless, a series of international alliances were formed both with and against Germany as the 19th century came to a close.

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Causes de la Première Guerre Mondiale

Les origines de la Première Guerre mondiale (1914-18) sont nombreuses et variées, certaines remontant même à plusieurs décennies de ça, mais un assassinat politique dans les Balkans à l'été 1914 fut l'étincelle qui fit exploser la poudrière politique de l'Europe, c'est-à-dire le mélange hautement volatile de gouvernements impérialistes, de montée du nationalisme et d'obligations d'un réseau complexe d'alliances internationales qui caractérisait la diplomatie européenne au début du XXe siècle.