#santali

Inktober Day 10 : Sweep

Medium : Digital Ink, G Pen

A Santali broom sweeping! Inspired by this

This inktober, I'm planning on using the prompts to explore South Asia's folk traditions!

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Language vitality can be measured on a scale ranging from “healthy” to “extinct.” A UNESCO paper proposes nine factors that determine a language’s viability:

Absolute number of speakers

Availability of materials for language education and literacy

Community members’ attitudes toward their own language

Governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies, including official status and use

Intergenerational language transmission

Proportion of speakers within the total population

Response to new domains and media

Shifts in domains of language use

Type and quality of documentation

Almost all of these factors include six degrees of endangerment: safe (healthy), unsafe/vulnerable, definitely endangered, severely endangered, critically endangered, and extinct.

The causes of language endangerment can be divided into four main categories:

Disease, famine, and natural catastrophes: The village of Malol in Papua New Guinea was destroyed by an earthquake in 1998. It was estimated that Malol had 3,330 speakers at the time.

Genocide and war: The Kasabe language of Cameroon became extinct in 1995 due to the Fulani jihad of the 19th century, which resulted in enslavement and massacre.

Overt repression (assimilation): Breton, spoken in France, is an example of a severely endangered language that suffered repression in the name of national unity.

Cultural/economic/political dominance: Santali, a language spoken in India, is classified as vulnerable due to the predominance of Bengali and especially Hindi, which is the official language of the country alongside English.

English: blanket

Etymology: From Sanskrit कम्बल (kambala), ultimately likely from Munda (Compare Santali ᱠᱚᱢᱵᱨᱚ (kômbrô))..

Phrases/Sentences:

শীতকালে আমি কম্বল জড়িয়ে বসে থাকতে পছন্দ করি।

śītkāle āmi kômbol joṛiye bose thākte pôchondo kori.

(sheet-kaa-le aa-mi kawm-bol jo-Ri-ye bo-se thaak-te paw-chhon-do ko-ri)

Translation: In winters, I like to sit wrapped up in the blanket.

A Year in Language, Day 71: Santali

Santali is spoken by over 6 million people in Northern India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. It is not a member of the Indo-Aryan family, like Hindi or Bengali, nor is it Dravidian like Tamil or Malayalam. It is actually a member of the Austrasiatic family, whose most familiar member to most of the world is Vietnamese. Santali belongs to the Munda branch of the family, of which all surviving members are spoken in South Asia, and actually predate the arrival of the Indo-Aryan languages to the region.

Like all members of the Munda branch Santali is a suffixing agglutinative language with about 8 cases and a three way number distinction (singular, plural, and dual). There is a gender distinction between animate and inanimate nouns and verbs can agree with the object as well as the subject, but only if the object would be a pronoun.

Santali (ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ)

Basic facts

Number of native speakers: 7.6 million

Official language: Jharkand, West Bengal (India)

Language of diaspora: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal

Script: Ol Chiki, 30 letters

Grammatical cases: 8

Linguistic typology: agglutinative, SOV

Language family: Austroasiatic, Munda, North, Kherwarian, Santhalic

Number of dialects: 6

History

<19th century - oral language

1925 - creation of the Ol Chiki script

Writing system and pronunciation

These are the letters that make up the script: ᱚ ᱛ ᱜ ᱝ ᱞ ᱟ ᱠ ᱡ ᱢ ᱣ ᱤ ᱥ ᱦ ᱧ ᱨ ᱩ ᱪ ᱫ ᱬ ᱭ ᱮ ᱯ ᱰ ᱱ ᱲ ᱳ ᱴ ᱵ ᱶ ᱷ.

Santali is also written using the Bengali, Devanagari, and Odia scripts.

Grammar

Nouns have three numbers (singular, dual, and plural) and eight cases (nominative, genitive, comitative, instrumental-locative, sociative, allative, ablative, and locative).

Personal pronouns distinguish inclusive and exclusive first-person forms. Complements precede nouns.

Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood, aspect, voice, person, and number. They sometimes also agree with the object.

Dialects

Bengali-Assamese (বাংলা-অসমীয়া লিপি)

The Bengali-Assamese script is derived from the Brahmi abugida and closely related to Devanagari, from which it began to diverge in the 11th century. Its current printed form first appeared in 1778, although some archaic letters were modernized kin the 19th century.

The alphabet has two literary styles: sadhubhaṣa (elegant language) and chôlitôbhasha (current language). The former is the traditional literary style based on Middle Bengali of the 16th century, while the latter is a 20th-century creation based on the language of educated people in Kolkata. The differences between the two styles are mainly in the forms of pronouns and verb conjugations.

Notable features

Script type: abugida

Writing direction: left-to-right in rows

Number of characters: 47 (36 consonants + 11 vowels)

Languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bishnupriya, Chakma, Chittagonian, Garo, Hajong, Khasi, Kokborok, Kurmali, Meitei, Mizo, Noakhali, Rabha, Rangpuri, Sanskrit, Santali, and Sylheti (18)

Consonants have an inherent vowel, but their pronunciation can be modified by adding vowel diacritics. The inherent vowel has two different pronunciations, depending on the position of the letter in the sentence and how closed the vowel is in the following syllable.

Vowels can be expressed by independent letters or diacritics that are written above, below, before, or after the consonant.

When consonants occur together in clusters, special conjunct letters are used.

Vowels

Consonants

Other symbols

Numerals

India 🇮🇳

Basic facts

Official name: ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য (Bharôt Gônôrajya)/ভারতীয় প্রজাতন্ত্র (Bhāratīẏa Prajātantra)/भारत गणराज्य (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/भारत गणराज्य (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/Republic of India/ભારતીય ગણરાજ્ય (Bhāratīya Gaṇarājya)/ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ (Bhārata Gaņarājya)/भारत गणराज्य (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/بہرات گاناراجؠا (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/भारत प्रजासत्ताक (Bhārat Pojastaka)/भारत गणतन्त्र (Bhārat Gaṇatana)/ഭാരതീയ മഹാരാജ്യം (Bhāratīya Mahārājyam)/भारत गणराज्य (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/ꯔꯤꯄꯕ꯭ꯂꯤꯛ ꯑꯣꯐ ꯏꯟꯗꯤꯌꯥ (Ripablik of Indijā)/भारत गणतन्त्र (Bhārat Gaṇatana)/ଭାରତ ଗଣରାଜ୍ୟ (Bhārata Ganarājya)/ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਰਾਜ (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/भारतगणराज्यम् (Bhārata Ganarājyam)/ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/ريپبلڪ آف انڊيا (Bhārat Gaṇarājya)/இந்தியக் குடியரசு (Intiyak Kuṭiyaracu)/భారత గణతంత్ర రాజ్యం (Bhārata Gaṇatantra Rājyam)/(Bhārat Jamhooria) جمہوریہ بھارت

Capital city: New Delhi

Population: 1.4 billion (2023)

Demonym: Indian

Type of government: federal parliamentary republic

Head of state: Droupadi Murmu (President)

Head of government: Narendra Modi (Prime Minister)

Gross domestic product (purchasing power parity): $14.59 trillion (2024)

Gini coefficient of wealth inequality: 32.8% (medium) (2021)

Human Development Index: 0.644 (medium) (2022)

Currency: Indian rupee (INR)

Fun fact: It is home to the world’s highest motorable road.

Etymology

The country’s name comes from the Sanskrit Sindhu, which means “river” and refers to the Indus River. Its endonym Bhārat derives from Bhāratavarṣa, which refers to the Vedic tribe of Bharatas.

Geography

India is located in South Asia and borders China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east, the Indian Ocean to the south, and Pakistan to the west.

There are nine main climates: cold desert, cold steppe, tundra, and subarctic in the north, monsoon-influenced humid subtropical in the northeast, dry-winter tropical savanna in the center, east, and south, hot steppe in the center and northwest, tropical monsoon in the southwest, and hot desert in the northwest. Temperatures range from −13 °C (8.6 °F) in winter to 40 °C (104 °F) in summer. The average annual temperature is 21.6 °C (70.8 °F).

The country is divided into twenty-eight states (raajy) and eight union territories (kēndra-śāsita pradēśa). The largest cities in India are Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad.

History

3300-1300 BCE: Indus Valley Civilization

2000-1500 BCE: Ocher Colored Pottery culture

1900-1300 BCE: Cemetery H culture

1700-1300 BCE: Kikata Kingdom

1700 BCE-550 CE: Magadha Empire

1200-600 BCE: Painted Grey Ware Civilization

1200-500 BCE: Kuru Kingdom

1100 BCE-400 CE: Panchala Kingdom

600-345 BCE: Mahājanapadas

525 BCE-375 CE: Yaudheya

345-322 BCE: Nanda Empire

322-184 BCE: Maurya Empire

312-63 BCE: Seleucid Empire

256-120 BCE: Kingdom of Bactria

200 BCE-10 CE: Indo-Greek Kingdom

187-73 BCE: Shunga Empire

100 BCE-203 CE: Satavahana Empire

19-226 CE: Indo-Parthian Kingdom

30-375: Kushan Empire

240-550: Gupta Empire

250-500: Vakataka Empire

345-540: Principality of Banavasi

350-1140: Kamarupa Kingdom

510-816: Kingdom of Kannauj

543-753: Chalukya Empire

566-1947: Kingdom of Mewar

753-982: Rashtrakuta Empire

786-1215: Ghurid Empire

848-1279: Chola Empire

855-1010: Emirate of Multan

947-1304: Kingdom of Malwa

977-1186: Ghaznavid Empire

1206-1526: Sultanate of Delhi

1336-1646: Vijayanagara Empire

1347-1527: Bahmani Sultanate

1352-1539, 1554-1576: Sultanate of Bengal

1394-1573: Sultanate of Gujarat

1399-1950: Kingdom of Mysore

1401-1562: Malwa Sultanate

1434-1541: Gajapati Empire

1445-1526: Langah Sultanate

1490-1636: Sultanate of Ahmednagar

1490-1687: Deccan sultanates

1526-1857: Mughal Empire

1532-1673: Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom

1538-1555: Sur Empire

1600-1947: British Raj

1661-1795: Dutch Malabar

1674-1818: Maratha Empire

1727-1818: Sial State

1729-1949: Kingdom of Travancore

1747-1823: Durrani Empire

1748-1799: Sikh Confederacy

1799-1849: Sikh Empire

1857: Indian Rebellion

1947-1948: Indo-Pakistani War

1947-1950: Union of India

1950-present: Republic of India

1954-1961: Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli

1962: First Sino-Indian War

1965: Indo-Pakistani War

1967: Second Sino-Indian War

1971: Indo-Pakistani War

1999: Kargil War

Economy

India mainly imports from China, the European Union, and the United Arab Emirates and exports to the United States, the European Union, and the United Arab Emirates. Its top exports are refined oil, rice, and sugar.

It has bauxite, chromite, iron, mica, and oil reserves. Services represent 53.3% of the GDP, followed by industry (28.3%) and agriculture (18.4%).

India is a member of the BRICS, the Commonwealth of Nations, the East Asia Summit, the G20, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.

Demographics

Indo-Aryans represent 75% of the population, while Dravidians account for 20% and Kolarians, Tibeto-Burmans, Khasi, and Tai make up 5%. The main religion is Hinduism, practiced by 79.8% of the population.

It has a negative net migration rate and a fertility rate of 2 children per woman. 37.1% of the population lives in urban areas. Life expectancy is 72 years and the median age is 28.7 years. The literacy rate is 77.7%.

Languages

The official languages of the country are Assamese (mother tongue of 1.2% of the population), Bengali (8%), Boro (0.1%), Dogri (0.2%), English (0.02%), Gujarati (4.5%), Hindi (43.6%), Kannada (3.6%), Kashmiri (0.5%), Konkani (0.1%), Maithili (1%), Malayalam (2.8%), Marathi (6.8%), Meitei (0.1%), Nepali (0.2%), Odia (3.1%), Punjabi (2.7%), Sanskrit, Santali (0.6%), Sindhi (0.2%), Tamil (5.7%), Telugu (6.7%), and Urdu (4.1%).

Culture

India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Extended families live together in the same house.

Men traditionally wear a loose tunic (kurta), a piece of cloth wrapped around the legs to resemble pants (dhoti) or a skirt (lungi), and a turban (pagri). Women wear a top (choli) and a fabric wrapped around the body with one end over the shoulder (sari).

Architecture

Traditional houses in India are made of mud bricks and have tiled roofs, a raised veranda, a courtyard surrounded by pillars, and intricately carved woodwork.

Cuisine

The Indian diet is based on meat, rice, and vegetables. Typical dishes include aloo methi (a stir-fry with potatoes and fenugreek leaves), chicken tikka masala (chicken in a yogurt tomato sauce), palak paneer (spinach leaves and paneer cheese), rasagola (syrup filled balls), and samosas (pastries filled with vegetables, peas, or potatoes).

Holidays and festivals

Like other Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, and Muslim countries, India celebrates Eid al-Fitr; Good Friday; Buddha Purnima, which celebrates Buddha; Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, which commemorates the birth of Mahavira; Eid al-Adha; Ashura; Mawlid; Vihayadashami, which celebrates the victory of good over evil; Diwali, the festival of lights; Guru Nanak’s Birthday, and Christmas Day.

Specific Indian holidays include Republic Day on January 26, Independence Day on August 15, and Gandhi Jayanti on October 2, which honors Mahatma Gandhi.

Independence Day

Other celebrations include the Ganesh Festival, when statues of Ganesha are paraded and then submerged in the ocean; Holi, when people throw colored powder on each other, and Onam, when people decorate the ground in front of their houses with flower arrangements.

Holi

Landmarks

There are 42 UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Agra Fort, Ajanta Caves, Archeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, Champaner-Pavagadh Archeological Park, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Churches and Convents of Goa, Dholavira: a Harappan City, Elephanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Fatehpur Sikri, Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area, Great Living Chola Temples, Group of Monuments at Hampi, Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, Group of Monuments at Pattadakal, Hill Forts of Rajasthan, Historic City of Ahmadabad, Humayun’s Tomb, Jaipur City, Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple, Kaziranga National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Khajuraho Group of Monuments, Khangchendzonga National Park, Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Mountain Railways of India, Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks, Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat, Red Fort Complex, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas, Santiniketan, Sun Temple, Sundarbans National Park, Taj Mahal, The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, The Jantar Mantar, Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai, and Western Ghats.

Kaziranga National Park

Other landmarks include the Gateway of India, the Hawa Mahal palace, the Masrur Temples, the Pangong Tso lake, and the Swaminarayan Akshardham temple.

Swaminarayan Akshardham

Famous people

Garima Arora - chef

Kalpana Chawla - astronaut

Priyanka Chopra - actress

Pusarla Venkata Sindhu - badminton player

Rabindranath Tagore - poet

Salman Rushdie - writer

Sania Mirza - tennis player

Shah Rukh Khan - actor

Srisaila Sri Rajamouli - movie director

Virat Kohli - cricketer

Kalpana Chawla