#erwinrommel

Erwin Rommel

Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) was a German field marshal who gained fame as a tank commander in the Fall of France in 1940 and then as the commander of the Afrika Korps in North Africa, where he gained numerous victories. Known as the 'Desert Fox' for his daring tactics, Rommel was obliged to commit suicide when suspected of involvement in the plot to kill the leader of Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler (1889-1945).

Early Life

Erwin Rommel was born into a middle-class family on 15 November 1891 in Heidenheim an der Brenz, southern Germany. His father was a mathematics teacher, a subject Erwin showed a talent for when he was not cycling and skiing. Keen to study engineering and perhaps join the Zeppelin airship company, Erwin ended up joining the army in July 1910, specifically, the 6th Württemberg/124th Infantry Regiment. In the German system, future officers joined the ranks to gain their first experience of military life. Rommel earned his sergeant stripes and an insight into the private's life, which would serve him well as a commander throughout his career. Completing his officer's training at the War Academy of Danzig (modern Gdańsk) in early 1912, Lieutenant Rommel served in the infantry regiment he had first joined in 1910.

By the time the First World War (1914-18) broke out, Rommel was a platoon leader. One biographer memorably describes the young officer as "the perfect fighting animal, cold, cunning, ruthless, untiring, quick of decision, incredibly brave" (quoted in Boatner III, 462). During the conflict, Rommel won both the 2nd and 1st class versions of the Iron Cross. He was next assigned to a special group of mountain troops where he served as a company commander. Here he learnt the value of mobility in modern warfare. For his role in capturing Monte Matajur near Caporreto in the Italian Alps in October 1917, Rommel gained another medal, this time the Pour le Mérite (Prussia's highest decoration), one of only two he would proudly wear for the rest of his life, the other being the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds (the highest German decoration). By now a captain, Rommel saw out the war as a staff officer.

Erwin Rommel

Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) était un maréchal allemand qui se fit connaître en tant que commandant de chars lors de la chute de la France en 1940, puis en tant que commandant de l'Afrikakorps en Afrique du Nord, où il remporta de nombreuses victoires. Surnommé le "Renard du désert" pour ses tactiques audacieuses, Rommel dut se suicider lorsqu'il fut soupçonné d'avoir participé au complot visant à tuer le dirigeant de l'Allemagne nazie, Adolf Hitler (1889-1945).

Battle of Kasserine Pass

The Battle of Kasserine Pass in Tunisia (18-22 February 1943) was won by Axis German and Italian forces led by field marshal Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) against a combined Allied army of British, French, and US troops. The last fling of the famed Afrika Korps, Kasserine proved to be an inconsequential victory as the Allies rallied in force and definitively pushed the Axis armies out of North Africa just a few months later.

Grant Tank, Kasserine Pass

US Signal Corps Photograph Collection (Public Domain)

Operation Torch

The Allies (the United States and Britain and its empire) were keen to open a second front in Europe against Germany and Italy but first had to secure North Africa, which could provide a platform for an invasion of Italy. The Western Desert Campaigns had been swinging back and forth across the desert since 1940. Finally, the pendulum was ceasing to swing, beginning with the success of the British Eight Army at the Second Battle of El Alamein (October-November 1942) and followed up a few days later by Operation Torch, a massive amphibious and air operation, which landed three Allied armies in French Morocco and Algeria. As the British Eighth Army led by General Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976) moved in from the east and the Allied army (US, British, and French forces) of Torch commanded by Lieutenant-General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) moved from the west, the Axis armies were reduced to holding a pocket in northern Tunisia. Without sufficient supplies, the Axis field marshal Erwin Rommel recommended to the leader of Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), who was then wholly preoccupied with the Russian Front, that North Africa be abandoned. Rommel's advice was ignored, and he was ordered to continue the desert campaign as best he could. Aid did arrive in the form of 17,000 fresh Axis troops, who landed via Tunis through November. These reinforcements and an increase in the power of the German air force in the region, allowed the Axis armies to successfully defend their position in Tunisia at Longstop Hill (22-25 December).

The progress of the Allies was being seriously hampered by poor weather and the logistical problem of supplying the Eighth Army through the extensive minefields at El Alamein. Montgomery, too, was particularly careful to ensure the enemy could not push his army back at any point as it slowly advanced. In any case, as time pressed on and 1943 began, the Allies were only growing stronger in troop numbers and material as these poured into the multiple ports they controlled. The Axis army was gaining in strength, too, but was far from equal to that of the Allies. Allied air and sea superiority continued to ensure Axis supplies to North Africa were continuously in peril. In January 1943, 31 of the 51 Axis supply ships destined for Tunisia were sunk or damaged. Through January and February, the Axis powers lost 200,000 tons of shipping destined for Tunis.

Second Battle of El Alamein

The Second Battle of El Alamein (Oct-Nov 1942) was a major battle in North Africa during the Western Desert Campaigns of the Second World War (1939-45). The British Eighth Army led by General Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976) won a decisive victory against Axis forces commanded by General Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), effectively ending German-Italian ambitions in the region.

General Montgomery in a Grant Tank

G.J. Keating - Imperial War Museums (Public Domain)

The Importance of North Africa

During WWII, North Africa became a major theatre of the conflict as Britain sought to keep control of the Suez Canal and protect vital shipping routes in the Mediterranean. In the early years of the war, this was the only place where Britain could fight a land war against the Axis powers of Germany and Italy and so hopefully gain much-needed victories that would encourage the British people after the debacle of the Dunkirk Evacuation and the horrors of the London Blitz. The fighting in North Africa became known as the Western Desert Campaigns (June 1940 to January 1943).

With Operation Compass (December 1940 to February 1941), British and British Empire troops pushed Italy's poorly equipped army out of Cyrenaica (Eastern Libya). From February, the Axis presence in North Africa was considerably boosted by the arrival of German troops, the elite Deutsche Afrika Korps (DAK) with superior armour, weapons, and training compared to both the Italians and the Allies. Things improved further for the Axis powers when General Rommel took command in North Africa. Rommel won a series of victories in March and April 1941, the Allies survived the siege of Tobruk (April to December 1941), but then Rommel won the Battle of Gazala (May-June 1942) when he smashed through the Allied Gazala Line of defences and finally captured Tobruk in June 1942. Rommel was promoted to the rank of field marshal, and with the British Eighth Army in full retreat, he was determined to take the great prizes of Alexandria and the Suez Canal. He gained another victory at the Battle of Mersa Matruh, but with his army at the very limit of its endurance and supply lines, Rommel was held back at the First Battle of El Alamein (1-27 July 1942). Rommel's army remained a real threat to Egypt and Britain's oil interests in the Middle East. The outcome of these pendulum campaigns, where both sides repeatedly won and lost vast swathes of territory, would finally be decided in one giant, set-piece encounter, the Second Battle of El Alamein.

WWII North Africa Campaign, 1940-1943

Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)

Battle of Gazala

The Battle of Gazala in Libya in May-June 1942 was a decisive victory for German and Italian forces led by General Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) against British, Commonwealth, and Free French forces during the Western Desert Campaigns (Jun 1940 to Jan 1943) of the Second World War (1939-1945). As a consequence of the defeat and breaking up of the British defensive line at Gazala, the Allies were obliged to surrender the key fortress port of Tobruk and give Rommel his finest victory.

General Rommel, Western Desert

Imperial War Museums (CC BY-NC-SA)

Desert Warfare

Into the second year of WWII, the Allies, then principally British and Commonwealth forces, were keen to protect the Suez Canal from falling into enemy hands, that is into the control of the Axis powers of Germany and Italy. North Africa was also strategically important to both sides' wish to control and protect vital Mediterranean shipping routes. The island of Malta was also crucial in this role and holding the island fortress (then in British hands) was another reason to control potential airfields in the North African desert. Finally, North Africa was the only place where Britain could fight a land war against Germany and Italy and so hopefully gain much-needed victories that would encourage the British people after the debacle of the Dunkirk Evacuation and the horrors of the London Blitz.

For all of the above reasons, a series of desert battles ensued, which are collectively known as the Western Desert Campaigns. At first, the British Army faced poorly equipped Italian forces, but these were soon considerably boosted by German troops with superior armour, weapons, and training.

North Africa proved a difficult theatre of war with its small ports, poor (or often non-existent) roads, and harsh desert environment. For both sides, battling local conditions and overcoming frequent shortfalls in logistics became just as important as bettering the enemy's military forces. As Rommel once reflected: "The battle is fought and decided by the quartermasters before the shooting begins" (Mitchellhill-Green, 264).

One thing the desert had was space, and battles could range over many miles as territorial gains became much less important than inflicting material damage on the enemy compared to other theatres of the war. Other peculiarities of desert warfare included the general absence of any civilian involvement and the fact that both sides frequently used captured equipment, a phenomenon that often made positive identification of exactly who was approaching across the far horizon in clouds of dust and sand extremely difficult. These same dust clouds, and the speed of armoured engagements, also meant that both the Axis and Allied air forces could only play a limited role in battles and so were largely reduced to targeting supply lines or fixed defensive positions.

General Erwin Rommel

Bundesarchiv, Bild 146-1977-018-13A / Otto (CC BY-SA)

Battle of Bir Hakeim

The defence by Free French forces of the remote desert watering hole of Bir Hakeim (Hacheim) in Libya, North Africa in May-June 1942 during the Second World War (1939-45) is one of the most heroic episodes in French military history. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the defenders, which included units of the famed French Foreign Legion, held out for 15 days against four German and Italian divisions commanded by no less a figure than General Erwin Rommel (1891-1944).

The Axis forces attacked Bir Hakeim because it was part of the Allied Gazala Line defences, which protected the approach to the vital port of Tobruk. When finally overwhelmed, 2,700 Free French troops from an original garrison of 3,700 still managed to escape Bir Hakeim to fight another day. Meanwhile, Rommel defeated the rest of the Allied forces at the Battle of Gazala and captured Tobruk in June 1942, his greatest victory in North Africa.

French Foreign Legion, Bir Hakeim

Leonard Chetwyn - Imperial War Museums (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Western Desert Campaigns

In the first years of the second year of WWII, the Allies, then principally British and Commonwealth forces, were especially keen to protect the Suez Canal from falling into enemy hands, that is into the control of the Axis powers Germany and Italy. North Africa was also strategically important if either side wished to control and protect vital Mediterranean shipping routes. The island of Malta was crucial in this role, and holding the island fortress (then in British hands) was another reason to control potential airfields in the North African desert. Finally, North Africa was, at this stage of the conflict, the only place where British and French troops could fight a land war against Germany and Italy. After the embarrassing debacle of the Dunkirk Evacuation and the humiliating Fall of France in 1940, any military victories at all would be a vital morale boost to the Allies.

For all of the above reasons, a series of desert battles ensued, which are collectively known as the Western Desert Campaigns (Jun 1940 to Jan 1943). At first, the British Eighth Army faced poorly equipped Italian forces, but these were soon considerably boosted by German troops with superior armour, weapons, and training. From January 1941, the Axis forces in Africa benefitted from the considerable command abilities of General Erwin Rommel, a man who had already gained a reputation as a master of fast armour tactics during the Fall of France in 1940. Rommel first commanded the specialised Deutsche Afrika Korps (DAK) and proved his worth by capturing El Agheila in March 1941 and then Mersa Brega on 1 April. By July, Rommel was in overall practical command of all German and Italian forces in North Africa, although he was still technically under the ultimate authority of the Italian high command. Two victories against Allied offensives in May and June (code-named Brevity and Battleaxe, respectively) were followed by defeat in a third offensive in November, code-named Crusader. Rommel's two persistent problems were insufficient manpower and lack of supplies (especially food, fuel, and ammunition), but by January 1942, this situation improved significantly, and the German general, ignoring his orders to emphasise defence, went on the attack.

The British Eighth Army, which was composed of a range of British, British Empire, and Free French troops, was commanded by Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie (1897-1985). The overall commander of Allied troops in the Middle East was General Claude Auchinleck (1884-1981). Unfortunately, at this stage of the Western Desert Campaigns, the British Army was poorly equipped, poorly trained, and poorly led. In contrast, "Rommel's force was numerically inferior, but his troops were more professional, better led, and thoroughly steeped in the cooperation of all arms" (Dear, 992).

General Rommel on Campaign

Imperial War Museums (CC BY-NC-SA)

Afrika Korps

The Deutsches Afrika Korps (DAK) was an elite German armoured unit that fought in North Africa during the Second World War (1939-45). The Korps was initially led by Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) before he was promoted to lead a larger force of which the Korps remained a part. The Afrika Korps gained a reputation for its mastery of the desert environment, skill in arms, and esprit de corps.

Involved in the Western Desert Campaigns and the North Africa Campaign, the Afrika Korps was only one element of the Axis armies commanded by Rommel, but the term 'Afrika Korps' is commonly used to refer to all of Rommel's troops in Africa.

The Battle for North Africa

In 1940, an Italian army invaded British-held Egypt but was then pushed back across Libya in the Operation Compass offensive (December 1940 to February 1941). The Allies achieved an astonishing victory, capturing Tobruk and 138,000 prisoners, thanks to their superior weapons, armour, and tactics. The loss motivated the leader of Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) to send to North Africa a better-trained and better-equipped force to meet the Allied threat. North Africa was important because whoever controlled it also controlled the Mediterranean shipping routes and islands like Crete and Malta. The Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), on the other hand, was keen to build himself a more impressive colonial empire on the continent. The Allies now had to face a combined Axis army. Hitler's orders for the German troops that arrived in February 1941 were to preoccupy and tie down as many Allied troops as possible, helping the Axis war effort elsewhere. Hitler was not looking for a campaign of conquest but one of containment that used up as few of his resources and as much of the enemy's as possible. Indeed, Hitler's name for the first German North African force was Sperrverband, meaning "special blocking detachment". The plan, known as Operation Sonnenblume (Sunflower), was to ensure the Italian forces in North Africa could continue to resist Allied offensives.

Siege of Tobruk

The siege of the port of Tobruk in Libya (April to Dec 1941) by Axis forces during the Second World War (1939-45) lasted 242 days and became a symbol of Allied resistance. Besieged by land but still supplied by sea, Tobruk was of vital strategic significance to both sides in the Western Desert Campaigns. Two attempted breakouts failed to lift the siege, but neither could the Axis troops led by General Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) break the defenders' resistance. It was not until a third Allied offensive, code-named Crusader, that Rommel was finally obliged to withdraw.

The Battle for North Africa

Into the second year of WWII, the Allies, then principally British and Commonwealth forces, were particularly keen to protect the Suez Canal from falling into the control of the Axis powers of Germany and Italy. The loss of the canal would effectively cut the British Empire in half. North Africa was also strategically important to both sides' wish to control and protect vital Mediterranean shipping routes. The island of Malta was also crucial in this role and holding the island fortress (then in British hands) was another reason to control potential airfields in the North African desert. Finally, North Africa was the only place where Britain could fight a land war against Germany and Italy and so hopefully gain much-needed victories that would encourage the British people after the debacle of the Dunkirk Evacuation and the horrors of the London Blitz. For all of the above reasons, a series of desert battles ensued, which are collectively known as the Western Desert Campaigns (June 1940 to January 1943).

At first, the British Army, with Operation Compass, won a series of victories against poorly equipped Italian forces, and Tobruk was captured in January 1941. From February, the Axis presence in North Africa was considerably boosted by the arrival of German troops such as the elite Deutsche Afrika Korps (DAK) with superior armour, weapons, and training compared to both the Italians and the Allies. Things improved further for the Axis powers when General Rommel took over command of Axis forces in North Africa. Rommel's official orders were to contain the Allies and focus primarily on defence; these he blithely ignored and immediately went on the offensive. Rommel, besides capturing two British generals, gained El Agheila in March 1941, then Mersa Brega on 1 April, Benghazi on 4 April, and El Mechili on 7 April as he moved in on the port of Tobruk in Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), vital if he was to protect his left flank when he conducted his planned invasion of Egypt to take the Suez Canal.

Rommel's two persistent problems were insufficient manpower and a lack of supplies (especially food, fuel, and ammunition), but his opponents were beset with similar logistical challenges and, in addition, were severely hampered by poorly-trained troops, poor equipment, poor multi-arms cooperation, and poor commanders who could not cope with Rommel's tactics of using his armour with speed and audacity. Rommel's tactics more than compensated for his numerical inferiority in men and tanks compared to the Allies.

WWII North Africa Campaign, 1940-1943

Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)

Mastering logistics remained the key to success in the desert war, though, and whoever controlled the port of Tobruk had a distinct advantage over the enemy. The commander of the Allied Middle East Forces, General Archibald Wavell (1883-1950), was ordered to hold the port at all costs. With the war going badly for the Allies everywhere else, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965) was particularly anxious that North Africa did not contribute to the already sorry catalogue of defeats. The Allies did have the advantage that although Rommel's armour was closing a ring around Tobruk on land, the port could still be supplied by sea thanks to the Royal Navy's presence in the Mediterranean. A disadvantage was that Wavell was obliged to send some of his force to participate in the ongoing campaign in Greece.