#cassiusdio

Vitellius

Vitellius was Roman emperor from April to December 69 CE. Vitellius was the third of the four emperors who ruled the Roman Empire in the year 69 CE. One of his predecessors, Galba, who had replaced the fallen Emperor Nero, was murdered by the Praetorian Guard for failing to keep promises to those who had put him in power. Emperor Otho, Galba's successor, committed suicide before the imposing armies of Vitellius reached Rome. He had chosen to sacrifice his own life instead of those of his men. Vitellius, like the previous two occupants of the throne, would not remain in power long.

Aulus Vitellius was born in September of 14 CE (there is some conflict as to the exact date). He was the son of Lucius Vitellius, a consul and former governor of Syria, and a noble woman Sextilia. Historian Suetonius in his The Twelve Caesars wrote that there were conflicting stories concerning his family, possibly noble, possibly not. Although accused of high treason (not uncommon in the Empire in those days), Lucius was still awarded a public funeral and a statue at Rosha. Vitellius spent most of his youth on the Isle of Capri with the self-imposed exile Emperor Tiberius. Later on, he would win the favour of three different emperors: Caligula (because of his chariot racing), Claudius (for his dice playing), and lastly Nero (who appreciated both of those talents). At many public events, Vitellius often persuaded Nero to sing and play the lute - something Nero rarely declined. Vitellius rose rapidly through various public offices eventually becoming Minister of Public Works and governor-general of Africa. He married twice: to Petroniana with whom he had one son (who was later poisoned, possibly by Vitellius) and to Galeria Fundana with whom he had one son and a daughter.

Throughout his public career, Vitellius was noted for two vices – gluttony and gambling; both would play a vital role in his future. Despite the lack of military experience, Emperor Galba made an unpopular decision and appointed him to be governor of Lower Germany in 68 CE. He felt Vitellius's vices would keep him from being a threat to his power. Suetonius wrote, “…. a glutton was the sort of rival whom he feared least, and that, he expected Vitellius to cram his belly with the fruits of the province.” The armies of Lower Germany, however, had a different view of the new governor-general - they welcomed him. They had little affection for Galba, even refusing to recognize him as the new emperor, and Galba had little love for them. Lower Germany had not participated in Galba's overthrow of Nero, thereby not benefitting from the financial gain that followed.

The army in Rome who had supported the new emperor soon became disgruntled with him. Much of the money that Galba gathered from tributes and land seizures was not spent on the troops but kept for himself. He no longer felt any loyalty to those who had put him on the throne. He would meet his death, however, at the hands of the Guard. Upon Galba's death, many favoured placing Vitellius on the throne; however, Otho, former governor of Lusitania, was named the emperor (mostly due to his role in Galba's assassination). According to Suetonius, many in the army of Lower Germany took an oath to support Vitellius, preferring him over Otho because he had “granted every favour asked of him.”

Upon ascending to the throne, Otho felt there was little need to fear Vitellius - the governor-general's quarrel had been with Galba, and he was dead. According to Suetonius, Vitellius, however, felt otherwise. When Vitellius heard of Galba's death, he divided his army into two separate divisions - one went to Gaul and one went to meet Otho north of Rome. According to Tacitus, “For most Romans the choice between Otho and Vitellius seemed to be simply one of two evils. It was the armies that decided, and the armies of Germany … were too much for Otho's praetorians and army of Italy.” Despite appeals from Otho, the two armies met at the First Battle of Bedriacum on April 16, 69 CE. It was on this day that Otho committed suicide. Although not present at the battle, Vitellius was immediately declared the new emperor and word was rushed to him in Gaul.

Prior to his assumption to the governorship of Germany, Vitellius has accumulated enormous debt (a result of his gambling habit). His position as emperor provided him an opportunity to rid himself of this massive debt. Suetonius said, “All the money-lenders, tax collectors and dealers who had ever dunned him at Rome, or demanded prompt payment for goods and services on the road, it is doubtful whether he showed mercy in a single instance.”

Many in Rome considered the new emperor to be cruel. Suetonius said he would kill or torture at “the slightest pretext.” Historian Cassius Dio wrote in his Roman History, “Vitellius, addicted as he was to luxury and licentiousness, no longer cared for anything else either human or divine … Now, when he was in a position of so great authority, his wantonness only increased, and he was squandering money most of the day and night alike.” As word of his diminished popularity among many in the army reached him, Vitellius became more generous in both public and private, hoping to maintain the loyalty of the troops. Suetonius wrote, “As things began to look bad for him, he began to show mercy.”

Many who had support Vitellius earlier began to swear allegiance to Titus Falvius Vespasianus (Vespasian), governor of Judea. When an attempted treaty failed (Vitellius had hoped to save himself from a sure death), the armies of the two met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum; Vitellius's men were soundly defeated. The soon-to-be dethroned emperor tried to escape Rome in disguise; however, he was captured by Vespasian's men, and while pleading for his life, he was dragged through the streets, tortured, killed (December 20, 69 CE) and thrown into the Tiber. Immediately, Vespasian was named the new emperor. Vitellius was fifty-six years old and had ruled for only eight months.

Parthian Warfare

Parthian warfare was characterized by the extensive use of cavalry and archers. Coming at enemy troops from all directions Parthian riders created confusion and wreaked havoc. They even developed the famous “Parthian shot.” Able to shoot backward at full gallop, the Parthian archer delivered kill shots at pursuing cavalry. Just as essential were their heavy-armored horse cavalry called cataphracts that provided offensive support and assistance in mopping up remaining pockets of resistance with long lances and swords. Taking over the Seleucid Empire, Parthia (247 BCE - 224 CE) controlled territories that stretched from the Mediterranean in the west to India and China in the east and were even a match for the Romans. About Parthia's ability to wage war, Strabo mentions, "they were well adapted for establishing dominion, and for ensuring success in war" (11.9.2).

Parthian Cavalry

Coming off the flat steppe region of central Asia, more than one ancient author mentions Parthian cavalry as essential to their military machine. Consummate in their military tactics and organization the Parthians were also excellent horse breeders and trainers. Strabo says that their horses were superior in "fleetness" (3.4.15). That they were the fastest around meant their riders could chase down the enemy when in pursuit, or escape when pursued. It is likely, as well, like many warhorses of old, Parthian horses were trained to trample enemy infantry or unhorsed cavalry. But the value of a horse's ability to turn on a dime was appreciated early on. Writing in the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE, Xenophon mentions, in his Art of Horsemanship:

Another point which is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at full speed the horse can be pulled up sharp and is willing to wheel around in obedience to the reins. (section 3)

Maneuvering like today's barrel race riders, the importance of the mounted warrior to whirl about their horse during military engagement - to attack the flank of pursuing cavalry, to change direction to help fellow warriors, or to have the advantage of maneuverability during one-on-one combat with enemy cavalry - would have been fundamental for Parthian cavalry units. Strabo also mentions the other part to the Parthian horse's superiority was "their ease in speedy traveling" (3.4.15). This not only would have helped the aim of the mounted archer delivering kill shots at full gallop but just as important, it meant the rider would not be worn out from riding a choppy gaited horse.

At times Parthian cavalry would have ranged some distances to get to a field of combat. Getting there quick would have been crucial, but getting there on the backs of smoother riding horses meant less fatigued warriors able to freshly engage at a moment's notice. That the Parthian horses were superior to others and key to Parthia's military superiority for such a long time, reveals ownership of a highly organized, closely-held horse industry that produced superior animals while using state of the art training methods.

Didius Julianus

Didius Julianus was Roman emperor from March to June 193 CE. On March 28, 193 CE Roman Emperor Pertinax was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, and like his predecessor Commodus, he left no apparent successor. Two possible claimants presented themselves to the Guard. These “protectors” of the imperial throne had vowed that no new emperor would be chosen without their approval and an “auction” ensued, following which, the throne was finally awarded to the highest bidder - Didius Julianus, a former commander, governor, and consul.

Early Life

Marcus Didius Julianus was born on January 30, 133 CE to Quintas Petronius Didius Severus of Milan and Aemilia Clara. He was raised in the home of Marcus Aurelius's mother, Domitia Lucilla. The educational advantages he received there enabled him to rise through the imperial ranks and become a successful commander in Germany, the governor of Lower Germany, and, during the time of Emperor Pertinax, a senator and co-consul. Unfortunately, his career briefly stalled when he and several other commanders were recalled to Rome by Emperor Commodus, and he was forced to temporarily retire. Although no proof exists, it was suggested that he may have been part of the conspiracy to assassinate the fallen emperor.

With the death of Emperor Pertinax, Julianus decided to use his vast wealth to buy the throne, outbidding the prefect of Rome and Pertinax's father-in-law, Titus Flavius Suspicianus. To further secure his claim, he convinced the Guard that Titus might seek revenge for the death of his son-in-law. In his Roman History, Cassius Dio spoke of the auction, “Didius Julianus, at once an insatiable money-getter and wanton spendthrift …always eager for revolution and hence had been exiled by Commodus…when he heard of the death of Pertinax, hastily made his way to the camp, and, standing at the gate of the enclosure, made bid to the soldiers for the rule over Rome.”

In his The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon also wrote about the auction, “This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military license, diffused as universal grief, shame and indignation throughout the city. It reached at length the ears of Didius Julianus.” Yet, according to Gibbon, it was not personal ego but his wife and daughter's suggestion that convinced him to pursue the throne. Gibbon added that as the Guard carried Julianus through the streets to the Senate, they paraded a man “whom they served and despised.” Herodian, in his History of the Roman Empire, spoke of Julianus's reception by the people of Rome. “No one, however, shouted the congratulations usually heard when emperors were accompanied by a formal escort; on the contrary, the people stood at a distance, shouting curses and reviling Julianus bitterly for using his wealth to purchase the throne.”

Didius Julianus

Didius Julianus was Roman emperor from March to June 193 CE. On March 28, 193 CE Roman Emperor Pertinax was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, and like his predecessor Commodus, he left no apparent successor. Two possible claimants presented themselves to the Guard. These “protectors” of the imperial throne had vowed that no new emperor would be chosen without their approval and an “auction” ensued, following which, the throne was finally awarded to the highest bidder - Didius Julianus, a former commander, governor, and consul.

Early Life

Marcus Didius Julianus was born on January 30, 133 CE to Quintas Petronius Didius Severus of Milan and Aemilia Clara. He was raised in the home of Marcus Aurelius's mother, Domitia Lucilla. The educational advantages he received there enabled him to rise through the imperial ranks and become a successful commander in Germany, the governor of Lower Germany, and, during the time of Emperor Pertinax, a senator and co-consul. Unfortunately, his career briefly stalled when he and several other commanders were recalled to Rome by Emperor Commodus, and he was forced to temporarily retire. Although no proof exists, it was suggested that he may have been part of the conspiracy to assassinate the fallen emperor.

With the death of Emperor Pertinax, Julianus decided to use his vast wealth to buy the throne, outbidding the prefect of Rome and Pertinax's father-in-law, Titus Flavius Suspicianus. To further secure his claim, he convinced the Guard that Titus might seek revenge for the death of his son-in-law. In his Roman History, Cassius Dio spoke of the auction, “Didius Julianus, at once an insatiable money-getter and wanton spendthrift …always eager for revolution and hence had been exiled by Commodus…when he heard of the death of Pertinax, hastily made his way to the camp, and, standing at the gate of the enclosure, made bid to the soldiers for the rule over Rome.”

In his The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon also wrote about the auction, “This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military license, diffused as universal grief, shame and indignation throughout the city. It reached at length the ears of Didius Julianus.” Yet, according to Gibbon, it was not personal ego but his wife and daughter's suggestion that convinced him to pursue the throne. Gibbon added that as the Guard carried Julianus through the streets to the Senate, they paraded a man “whom they served and despised.” Herodian, in his History of the Roman Empire, spoke of Julianus's reception by the people of Rome. “No one, however, shouted the congratulations usually heard when emperors were accompanied by a formal escort; on the contrary, the people stood at a distance, shouting curses and reviling Julianus bitterly for using his wealth to purchase the throne.”

Tacite

Publius Cornelius Tacitus ou Tacite (c. 56 - c. 118 de notre ère) était un historien romain, actif pendant le règne de Trajan (r. 98-117) et les premières années d'Hadrien (r. 117-138). Ses œuvres les plus connues sont les Histoires et les Annales, qui couvrent l'histoire de l'empire depuis l'époque des Julio-Claudiens jusqu'au règne de Domitien (r. 81-96). Bien qu'il soit surtout connu pour ses écrits historiques, il eut également une longue carrière publique: il fut questeur en 81, préteur en 88, tribun de la plèbe, consul en 97 et proconsul d'Asie en 112-113.